Download Unit 7: Human Anatomy Content Outline: Nervous Systems (7.1) I

Unit 7: Human Anatomy
Content Outline: Nervous Systems (7.1)
I. Overview of the Nervous System:
A. Sensory Input-Stimulus sent into the brain or spinal cord.
1. Sensory Receptors receive a stimulus from the environment. A stimulus is a form of energy such as
electromagnetic (light), mechanical (pressure), and sound waves.
B. Integration
1. This is the interpretation of the energy by the Central Nervous System (CNS). (Basically “thinking” about the
stimulus)
2. This interpretation of the stimulus leads to a determination of the appropriate response.
3. Memories of events can be made during this process.
C. Motor Output (Out of the brain or spinal cord.)
1. The response is carried out by Effector Cells.
a. Effectors are Muscles or Glands. (These can have an effect on your body.)
D. Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
1. This includes the Sensory Receptors and Motor Nerves.
III. Neuron Structure (Nerve Cell)
A. Cell Body-This takes stimuli from different dendrites and compiles the energy into one signal. (Like a funnel)
B. Dendrites -These collect and carry stimuli Energy in to the cell body. (They cover a large area.)
C. Axon-This one arm carries the one compiled signal away toward the next neuron or effector cell.
D. Myelin Sheath-This is a lipid layer of insulation around the axon created by Schwann Cells. It prevents the electrical
energy of the neuron from burning the overlying muscle tissue. (It is analogous to the rubber covering
on electrical wires.)
F. Synapse-This is the gap between neurons or between a neuron and an effector cell.
1. Neurotransmitter - This is the chemical, produced by the neuron, used to transmit the signal across the gap.
a. The most common neurotransmitter is Acetylcholine.
IV. Reflex Arc (The simplest neural pathway.)
A. A stimulus energy is detected by a Sensory Neuron. (Carries the energy signal to the spinal cord)
B. An Interneuron (of the CNS – spinal cord) relays the energy back out to the motor nerve instead of to the brain.
(“inter” means “go between”… between the sensory and motor neurons.)
C. The energy is carried out of the CNS by the Motor Neuron. It carries the energy to an effector cell, usually a muscle.
D. This is why you do not think about a reflex, it just happens. The stimulus never made it to the brain for integration.
Unit 7: Human Anatomy
Content Outline: Sensory Mechanisms (7.2)
I. Sensation of Hearing
A. This sensation is accomplished by mechanoreceptors located in the inner ear. (Sound is basically hairs bending.)
B. Structure of the human ear (
1. Outer Ear - This part is for the collection of sound waves from the external surrounding environment.
a. Tympanic Membrane (A.K.A. ear drum) - This structure converts the sound wave energy into vibrations.
2. Middle Ear - This part is for the amplification of energy traveling toward the inner ear.
a. Malleus (A.K.A. the hammer)*
b. Incus (A.K.A. the anvil)*
*smallest bones in the human body
c. Stapes (A.K.A. the stirrup)*(This bone bangs on the oval window to create ripples inside the cochlea.)
i. These bones are responsible for amplifying the vibration energy.
3. Inner Ear -This part is where the transduction of fluid waves into electrical energy occurs – the type of energy
that the brain can understand.
a. Cochlea “snail shell shaped” turns sound into electrical energy.
II. Sensation of Balance and Motion
A. These are accomplished by mechanoreceptors (hairs bending again) in the Inner Ear.
B. Semi-circular canals - There are 3 on each side of head. These are the actual organs that detect these sensations.
1. The canals are filled with perilymph fluid.
2.3 canals: (90⁰ -detects up/down; 45⁰ - detects horizontal/vertical; 0⁰ -detects left lean/right lean)
III. Sensation of Taste
A. This is accomplished using receptors in the nose (olfactory – means “smell”) and mouth. (gustatory – means
“taste”)
B. Chemicals are detected by different neurons upon contact.
1. The five taste senses are: sweet, sour, bitter, salty, and umami (means “savory”… applies to meat taste.)
Taste is 80 % SMELL and 20 % TASTE – What if you have a cold? Food seems tasteless.
IV. Sensation of Sight (The eyes are a collection of photoreceptors.)
A. Anatomy (structure) of the Human Eye:
1. Sclera – This is referred to as the eye white.
2. Cornea – This layer is the clear part of the sclera. (It also acts as a fixed lens.) (Prevents debris from entering.)
3. Iris – This is the “colored” choroid (It controls the amount of light entering the eye through the pupil.)
4. Retina – This layer of the eye is the site of the photoreceptors.(It appears yellow upon dissection.)
a. Rods - This receptor cells are for seeing black, white, and shades of grey.
b. Cones - These receptor cells are used for seeing color.
i. They are outnumbered 20 :1 by the rods.
ii. They are found in vertebrates: but not all.
5. Lens – This structure focuses light. (It is made of a transparent, stretchable protein called crystalline.)
6. Optic Nerve – There is one for each eye. (It takes the information to the brain.)
V. The sensation of Touch
A. It is accomplished by pressure receptors in the skin.
B. There are also receptors for heat to detect temperature and pain receptors for detecting injury to the skin.
Unit 7: Human Anatomy
Content Outline: Digestive Systems (7.3)
I.
Digestion
A. The purpose of digestion is to break down food into forms that can be absorbed in to the bloodstream and
transported to the cells of the body. It is a series of processes.
B. There are two types of digestion that can occur in the system:
1. Mechanical Digestion- prepares food for the more complex process of chemical digestion.
2. Chemical Digestion- breaks the chemical bonds in nutrients so they can become small enough to be
absorbed into the bloodstream. This is accomplished by digestive enzymes.
II. The Human Digestive Tract
A. Mouth
1. Teeth- begins the process of mechanical digestion.
2. Saliva- cleanses the mouth and begins the process of chemical digestion with an enzyme called
Amylase, which breaks down simple carbohydrates.
3. Tongue- muscle that helps move food around the mouth and aids in swallowing by mashing food
against the roof of the mouth and creating bolus which is a moist ball of chewed food.
B. Esophagus
1. The journey from the mouth to the stomach takes approximately 6 seconds.
2. The esophagus coats food in mucus that assists in smooth movement of food through the
digestive tract.
C. Stomach- chemical and mechanical digestion happens here.
1. Stomach Acid and Enzymes- The stomach has glands which produce HCl (hydrochloric acid) and the
digestive enzyme pepsin, which breaks down proteins. The HCl activates the pepsin.
2. Mucus- excreted by the walls of the stomach and protects the stomach from the acidic contents.
3. Chyme- thick liquid produced by the digestive action of the stomach.
4. Food may remain in the stomach for up to 4 hours.
D. Small Intestine- 6 to 8 meters long
1. Digestion- a majority of digestion occurs here, completing the process.
2. Nutrient Absorption- occurs through the folds, villi, and microvilli of the small intestine through a
process called diffusion.
3. Nutrients are beginning to be absorbed within four to twelve hours.
E. Large Intestine1. Water and electrolyte absorption.
2. Within 18 hours water has been absorbed leaving solid waste.
F. Rectum- Solid waste accumulates here to be eliminated through the anus after a journey that typically takes
12 to 24 hours. Approximately 1/3 of this waste is dead bacteria.
G. Accessory Organs
1. Liver- makes bile, to help breakdown lipids, and sends it to the gall bladder.
2. Gall Bladder- holds the bile, until needed by the small intestine to aid in lipid digestion.
3. Pancreas- secretes pancreatic juices into the small intestine containing enzymes that help with
carbohydrate, protein, and fat digestion.
H. Sphincters- rings of thickened muscles controlling the passage of food between the different areas of the
digestive tract. There are 5. First is at the opening of the stomach. Second is at the end of
stomach. The third is between the small and large intestine. The last two are at the rectum.
III. Peristalsis- Is the rhythmic muscular contractions that keep the food moving in the right direction.
Unit 7: Human Anatomy
Content Outline: Circulatory Systems (7.4)
I.
Circulatory System
A. This system connects all the systems of the body, transporting nutrients, oxygen, hormones, and wastes.
B. Heart- this is the main organ of the circulatory system. It is located between the lungs.
1. Composed of cardiac muscle.
2. It has 4 chambers:
a. 2 atria (singular atrium), located on the top of the heart, for receiving blood.
b. 2 ventricles (singular ventricle), located on the bottom of the heart, for pumping blood out.
3. Valves provide “doorways” between the chambers.
4. It is a closed circulatory system because blood remains confined in blood vessels.
II. Blood- a vital bodily fluid.
A. Types of blood: A, B, AB, and O
B. A protein marker on the RBC cell membrane called Rh factor gives blood the + or -.
C. WBCs (leukocytes) white blood cells (“leuko” means white)
1. These cells protect against invading organisms or materials.
D. RBCs (erythrocytes) red blood cells
(“erythro” means red)
1. These cells transport materials around the body.
2. Hemoglobin helps oxygen molecules stick to RBCs; each RBC can carry up to1 billion oxygen
molecules at a time.
3. The lose their nucleus as they mature.
E. Platelets- pieces of RBCs used for making clots-repairs damage to vessels.
F. Plasma- liquid part of blood composed of 95% water and 5% dissolved materials like sugar, protein, minerals,
and wastes that are being transported around the body.
III. Blood Vessels
A. Arteries- These vessels are typically carrying oxygen rich blood that is bright red.
B. Veins- These vessels are typically carrying oxygen poor blood that is darker red.
C. Capillaries- These are small vessel that are located throughout your body and are able to reach every cell.
1. Oxygen diffuses into the cells and carbon dioxide diffuses out of the cells
Unit 7: Human Anatomy
Content Outline: Respiratory Systems (7.5)
I.
Respiratory System
A. This system delivers Oxygen gas to the bloodstream and removes Carbon dioxide gas from the body.
1. This is known as gas exchange.
2. The surfaces where gas exchange must stay wet, as gases do not diffuse across dry surfaces.
a. So you lungs are in your body, fish have gills; amphibians live in wet places to keep their skin
wet, as they breathe through their skin.
II. Structures of the respiratory system:
A. Nasal Passages- These warm, moisten, and clean the inhaled air using mucous and hair.
B. Larynx (voice box)- Two pairs of thick bands at the top of the trachea that help make sounds, as you exhale.
C. Trachea (windpipe) - It is protected by rings of cartilage.
1. Epiglottis- safety valve that keeps food and air going in separate locations; food down the esophagus
and air down the trachea.
D. Bronchi- These are the two main branches of the trachea that lead to the lungs.
E. Bronchioles- These are the smallest of air passageways leading to groups of alveoli.
F. Alveoli- air sacs that are incredibly tiny (and wrapped in capillaries) and are the location of gas exchange.
G. Lungs- The main organs of the respiratory system. The right lung is larger than the left because of the heart.
H. Diaphragm- large sheet of muscle at the base of the lungs/rib cage that is key to inhalation and exhalation.
It contracts to inhale and relaxes to exhale.
II. Cellular Respiration- the process by which nutrients are broken down, inside cells, in the presence of oxygen to
release energy for ATP production.
A. Glucose + oxygen = water + carbon dioxide + energy (ATP)
B. Respiratory system obtains the oxygen needed for cellular respiration in each cell of the body.
Unit 7: Human Anatomy
Content Outline: Excretory Systems (7.6)
I. Osmoregulation
A. This is the continuous control of water and solute concentrations within an organism. (A part of homeostasis)
B. Animals lose water as the breath, sweat, urinating nitrogenous waste, and defecate. Water must therefore be replaced.
C. They help in the removal of nitrogenous waste. (Ammonia is created from using amino acids for Energy production.)
1. Ammonia – This form requires lots of water to dispose. (Fish and other aquatic invertebrates)
2. Urea – This form requires moderate amounts of water in disposal – Good for dry land. (Mammals &
Amphibians)
a. This form combines ammonia and carbon dioxide together. (Two waste products as one)
3. Uric Acid – This form requires very little water. – Good for desert climates. (Birds and reptiles)
a. Ammonia and carbon dioxide in a paste like state. (Car paints? It is an acid… so it destroys them.)
II. Adaptations for Water Conservation
A. Keratinized skin, such as is seen in reptiles, birds, and mammals.
B. Exoskeleton Seen in insects – These were the first animals on land.
C. Being nocturnal- Animals move around at night to avoid possible dehydration by the sun.(Desert animals)
D. Storage cells or vacuoles to store extra water. (Desert animals- camels: plants – central vacuole.)
E. Waxy Cuticle –Seen on plant leaf surfaces.
III. Urine Production Basics for all animals.
A. It is a basically a two step process:
1. Filtration -This is achieved by the “liquid” portion of blood being separated from the blood cells and platelets.
b. The liquid portion now becomes “filtrate” upon leaving the blood vessel.
c. The collected filtrate is then filtered, to remove nitrogenous waste and other excess molecules.
2. Tubular reabsorption -This is the reabsorbing of “good materials” from the filtrate – leaving “bad” behind.
a. Reabsorption collects all or most of the “good materials” and puts them back in the blood.
b. This leaves behind the “bad materials” to be collected and disposed of in the form of Urine.
IV. Structures of the Urinary system:
A. Renal Artery – This blood vessel brings “polluted” blood into the kidneys.
B. Renal Vein – This blood vessel takes “purified” blood away from the kidneys.
C. Nephrons – These are the structures where blood is actually “purified”.
1. Each kidney has about 1 million nephrons in it.
D. Ureter – These two tubes take the urine from the kidneys to the bladder for storage until release.
E. Bladder – This is the expandable urine storage organ. (It is composed of transitional epithelium.)
F. Urethra – This is the tube leading from the bladder to outside of body. (It is the urinating tube.)
(Urine should be yellowish to clear... it depends on the amount of water to be released.)
V. Diseases associated with Kidney function:
A. Diabetes (means “Sweet Urine”) – There is too much sugar in the blood; the body is trying to get rid of it in the urine.
B. Cirrhosis of Liver – Condition leads to too much ammonia and bile in the blood causing Jaundice (yellowing) of skin.
1. Most common cause of Cirrhosis is alcoholism.
Unit 7: Human Anatomy
Content Outline: Reproductive Systems (7.7)
I. Mechanisms for sexual reproduction:
A. Fertilization - The fusing of haploid sperm and egg to create a diploid zygote.
1. Externally – Fertilization occurs outside the body. (This occurs in fish and amphibians.)
2. Internally – Fertilization occurs internally. (This occurs in most animals including reptiles, birds, and
mammals.)
II. Pheromones – Chemicals that are released into the outside environment to attract a mate or mark a territory.
III. Spermatogenesis – This is the making of sperm, by the male.
A. This takes place in the male’s testies, in the presence of the male hormone Testosterone.
IV. Male hormonal reproductive pattern
A. Primary sex characteristics – This refers to the ABILITY to make sperm. (This occurs at adolescence.)
B. Secondary sexual characteristics – This are the “traits” of men such as facial hair, muscle mass, deep voice.
1. Secondary characteristics start at puberty.
2. These hormones are not released in a cyclic pattern like female hormones are.
V. Important Female Anatomy
A. Uterus – This is the muscular structure for gestating (growing) a fetus. (A.K.A. Womb)
1. Endometrium – the inner lining of the Uterus.
B. Fallopian Tubes (Oviducts) – These are the tubes leading from each ovary to the uterus.
1. They are lined on the inside with ciliated cells. They move the egg toward the Uterus.
C. Ovaries – These are the organs responsible for egg and hormone (estrogen and progesterone) production.
1. Follicle – This structure is the protective case for a maturing egg, called an ovum.
2. Ovulation – This term refers to the releasing of an adult egg ready to be fertilized.
VI. Female Hormonal Pattern (This is cyclic; unlike males.)
A. Menstrual cycles - This cycle mainly occurs in humans. (A cycle is usually 28 days long.)
1. It requires menstruation to release the sugar rich endometrium of the uterus, if no pregnancy occurs.
B. Estrous cycles - Mainly occurs in other mammals. (No menstruation occurs because the endometrium is
reabsorbed.)
1. Estrous - This is a period of increased sexual activity. (A.K.A. heat) It last only a couple of days per year.
IV. The Female Human Menstrual Cycle
A. Days 1 – 5 - This is the menstrual flow phase. There is shedding of the old endometrium because pregnancy didn’t
occur. It is bloody, as the woman is shedding tissue.
B. Days 5 – 13 - This is the proliferative phase. Estrogen causes a new endometrium to be built back up. (Fetal
cushion)
C. Day 14 – This usually is the day ovulation (release of the egg) occurs.
D. Days 14 – 25 - This is the secretory phase. Progesterone causes the new endometrium to secrete a sugary
substance.
1. This sugar will serve to feed the developing fetus until an umbilical cord develops.
E. Days 25 – 28 – This is the endometrial breakdown phase – if no pregnancy has occurred. Breakdown tissues for
menses.
1. When menses begins, that marks day one of a new cycle beginning.
VIII. Menopause – When a woman has no more menstrual cycles – no more possible pregnancies.
Unit 7: Human Anatomy
Content Outline: The Skeletal System (7.8)
I.
The functions of the skeletal system:
A. It gives the body shape and provides a framework for the body.
1. Without your skeleton, you would be a big blob!!!
B. It protects certain body parts or organs.
1. Cranium (skull) – It protects the brain.
2. Costae (ribs) – They protect the lungs
3. Vertebrae or vertebral column (backbone) –It protects the spinal nerve cord.
4. Sternum (breastbone) – It protects the heart.
5. Pelvis (hip) – It helps to support and protects lower internal organs, such as the bladder.
C. Bones allow movement of the body by working with the muscles. Muscles can pull; not push.
D. Bones produces red blood cells in the bone marrow.
E. 206 bones in an adult human skeleton
1. You are born with more than 306 bones – as you grow certain bones fuse together.
II. The scientific names for the bones
A. Cranium – skull
B. Mandible – lower jawbone which is the only part of jaw that moves.
C. Maxilla – upper jawbone
D. Clavicle – collar bone
E. Sternum – breastbone
F. Rib “costae” – rib bones
G. Humerus – upper arm bone
H. Ulna – lower inside arm bone
I. Radius – lower outside arm bone
J. Carpals – wrist bones
K. Metacarpals – hand bones
L. Phalanges – finger bones
M.Pelvis – hip bones
N. Femur – upper leg bone (largest)
O. Patella – knee cap bone
P. Tibia – lower larger inside leg bone
Q. Fibula – lower smaller outside leg bone
R. Tarsals – ankle bones
S. Metatarsals – foot bones
T. Phalanges – toe bones
U. Vertebral column – backbone
V. Scapula – shoulder bone
THREE BONES IN THE EAR
W. Malleus – hammer
X. Incus – anvil
Y. Stapes – stirrup (smallest)
Z. Three unusual facts about the ear bones
1. Smallest bones in the body
2. Never grow
3. Hard to break
Unit 7: Human Anatomy
Content Outline: Muscular System (7.9)
I.
The Muscular System
A. The functions of the muscular system are:
1. The muscular system allows movement.
a. The nervous, skeletal, and muscular systems all work together for movement.
b. The nervous system sends a message to the muscles and tells the muscles to contract. This
contraction then moves the bones.
c. Muscles being mainly composed of the protein microfilaments actin and myosin.
2. The muscular system also controls other body activities such as: the muscles in the digestive system,
the diaphragm in breathing, and the heart in the circulatory system. (These are life functions.)
3. The muscles also help to control body temperature. When you are cold, the muscles will shiver to
generate heat. If they get too hot, they transfer they heat to sweat glands. The sweat then evaporates
and cools down the body. This is referred to as Thermoregulation. It is control by the brain.
a. This also part of homeostasis.
B. All muscles can be put into 2 categories.
1. Voluntary muscles are muscles that you can control.
Examples: muscles in your arms and legs
2. Involuntary muscles are muscles that we cannot control.
Examples: the heart, diaphragm
C. There are 3 different types of muscles: skeletal, smooth, and cardiac.
1. Skeletal muscles are muscles that move bones.
2. Smooth muscles are muscles that control certain internal organs and functions.
Examples: muscles associated with digestion by peristalsis.
3. Cardiac muscle composes the heart.
D. How skeletal muscles work:
1. In order for bones to move, the skeletal muscles must contract.
This contraction pulls the bone.
2. Skeletal muscles work in pairs, such as the biceps and triceps.
a. When the biceps is contracting, the triceps relaxes.
b. When the triceps contracts, the biceps relaxes.
d. It is the contraction of the muscle that moves the bone. (pulls the bone)
1. When the biceps contracts, the arm pulls up.
The triceps is relaxing.
2. When the triceps contracts, the arm pulls down.
The biceps is relaxing.
3. If a skeletal muscle continues to contract and doesn’t have time to relax, the muscle will get tired and
not be able to work.
4. Your muscles will be better coordinated and stronger if you use them by exercising.