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SUPPORTING INFORMATION Appendix S1: List of publications used to compile impacts in the native range Mammals Akashi N and Nakashizuka T (1999) Effects of bark-stripping by sika deer (Cervus nippon) on population dynamics of a mixed forest in Japan. Forest Ecology and Management 113: 75-82 Ando C (2003) The relationship between deer-train collisions and daily activity of the sika deer, Cervus nippon. Mammal Study 28: 135-143 Ando M, Itaya A, Yamamoto SI and Shibata E (2006) Expansion of dwarf bamboo, Sasa nipponica, grassland under feeding pressure of sika deer, Cervus nippon, on subalpine coniferous forest in central Japan. Journal of Forest Research 11: 51-55 Atwood TC, Deliberto TJ, Smith HJ, Stevenson JS and Vercauteren KC (2009) Spatial ecology of raccoons related to cattle and Bovine tuberculosis in Northeastern Michigan. Journal of Wildlife Management 73: 647-654 Baiser B, Lockwood JL, La Puma D and Aronson MFJ (2008) A perfect storm: two ecosystem engineers interact to degrade deciduous forests of New Jersey. Biological Invasions 10: 785-795 Baker BW, Ducharme HC, Mitchell DCS, Stanley TR and Peinetti HR (2005) Interaction of beaver and elk herbivory reduces standing crop of willow. Ecological Applications 15: 110-118 Beasley JC and Rhodes OE, Jr. (2008) Relationship between raccoon abundance and crop damage. Human-Wildlife Conflicts 2: 248-259 Beja-Pereira A, Bricker B, Chen SY, Almendra C, White PJ and Luikart G (2009) DNA Genotyping Suggests that Recent Brucellosis Outbreaks in the Greater Yellowstone Area Originated from Elk. Journal of Wildlife Diseases 45: 11741177 Bellhouse T and Rosatte R (2005) Assessment of the potential for negative interaction between re-introduced elk (Cervus elaphus) and resident white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) in their wintering areas in Ontario, Canada. Mammalia 69: 35-56 Bienen L and Tabor G (2006) Applying an ecosystem approach to brucellosis control: can an old conflict between wildlife and agriculture be successfully managed? Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment 4: 319-327 Blackmore CGM and Grimstad PR (2008) Evaluation of the eastern cottontail Sylvilagus floridanus as an amplifying vertebrate host for Cache Valley virus (Bunyaviridae) in Indiana. Journal of Wildlife Diseases 44: 188-192 Bonner JL, Anderson JT, Rentch JS and Grafton WN (2009) Vegetative composition and community structure associated with beaver ponds in Canaan valley, West Virginia, USA. Wetlands Ecology and Management 17: 543-554 Bulinski J and McArthur C (2003) Identifying factors related to the severity of mammalian browsing damage in eucalypt plantations. Forest Ecology and Management 183: 239-247 Campbell KL, Weseen GL and Macarthur RA (1998) Seasonal changes in water flux, forage intake, and assimilated energy of free-ranging muskrats. Journal of Wildlife Management 62: 292-299 Cantu A, Ortega JA, Mosqueda J, Garcia-Vazquez Z, Henke SE and George JE (2008) Prevalence of infectious agents in free-ranging white-tailed deer in Northeastern Mexico. Journal of Wildlife Diseases 44: 1002-1007 Cassinello J (1998) Ammotragus lervia: a review on systematics, biology, ecology and distribution. Annales Zoologici Fennici 35: 149-162 Coates RW, Delwiche MJ, Gorenzel WP and Salmon TP (2010) Evaluation of damage by vertebrate pests in California vineyards and control of wild turkeys by bioacoustics. Human-Wildlife Conflicts 4: 130-144 Collen P and Gibson RJ (2001) The general ecology of beavers (Castor spp.), as related to their influence on stream ecosystems and riparian habitats, and the subsequent effects on fish - a review. Reviews in Fish Biology and Fisheries 10: 439-461 Connors LM, Kiviat E, Groffman PM and Ostfeld RS (2000) Muskrat (Ondatra zibethicus) disturbance to vegetation and potential net nitrogen mineralization and nitrification rates in a freshwater tidal marsh. American Midland Naturalist 143: 53-63 Corner LAL (2006) The role of wild animal populations in the epidemiology of tuberculosis in domestic animals: How to assess the risk. Veterinary Microbiology 112: 303-312 De Szalay FA and Cassidy W (2001) Effects of muskrat (Ondatra zibethicus) lodge construction on invertebrate communities in a great lakes coastal wetland. American Midland Naturalist 146: 300-310 delBarco-Trillo J, Gulewicz K, Segal A, McPhee ME and Johnston RE (2009) Can captivity lead to inter-species mating in two Mesocricetus hamster species? Journal of Zoology 278: 308-312 delBarco-Trillo J and Johnston RE (2010) Fluoxetine does not prevent interspecific mating between two hamster species. Physiology & Behavior 99: 684-686 DeVault TL, Kubel JE, Glista DJ and Rhodes OE, Jr. (2008) Mammalian hazards at small airports in Indiana: impact of perimeter fencing. Human-Wildlife Conflicts 2: 240-247 Dietrich G, Montenieri JA, Panella NA, Langevin S, Lasater SE, Klenk K, Kile JC and Komar N (2005) Serologic evidence of West Nile virus infection in freeranging mammals, Slidell, Louisiana, 2002. Vector-Borne and Zoonotic Diseases 5: 288-292 Dong W-G, Guo X-G, Men X-Y, Qian T-J and Wu D (2009) Ectoparasite communities of Rattus norvegicus (Rodentia: Muridae) in the surrounding areas of Erhai Lake in Yunnan, China. Acta Entomologica Sinica 52: 290-295 Dugan VG, Yabsley MJ, Tate CM, Mead DG, Munderloh UG, Herron MJ, Stallknecht DE, Little SE and Davidson WR (2006) Evaluation of white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) as natural sentinels for Anaplasma phagocytophilum. Vector-Borne and Zoonotic Diseases 6: 192-207 Durden LA, Ellis BA, Banks CW, Crowe JD and Oliver JH (2004) Ectoparasites of gray squirrels in two different habitats and screening of selected ectoparasites for bartonellae. Journal of Parasitology 90: 485-489 Engeman RM and Sterner RT (2002) A comparison of potential labor-saving sampling methods for assessing large mammal damage in corn. Crop Protection 21: 101-105 Farrell MC and Tappe PA (2007) County-level factors contributing to deer-vehicle collisions in Arkansas. Journal of Wildlife Management 71: 2727-2731 Fenske-Crawford TJ and Niemi GJ (1997) Predation of artificial ground nests at two types of edges in a forest-dominated landscape. Condor 99: 14-24 Fletcher JD, Shipley LA, McShea WJ and Shumway DL (2001) Wildlife herbivory and rare plants: the effects of white-tailed deer, rodents, and insects on growth and survival of Turk's cap lily. Biological Conservation 101: 229-238 Fondell TF, Grand JB, Miller DA and Anthony RM (2008) Predators of Dusky Canada Goose goslings and the effect of transmitters on gosling survival. Journal of Field Ornithology 79: 399-407 Forrester JA, Leopold DJ and Underwood HB (2006) Isolating the effects of whitetailed deer on the vegetation dynamics of a rare maritime American holly forest. American Midland Naturalist 156: 135-150 Freese CH, Aune KE, Boyd DP, Derr JN, Forrest SC, Gates CC, Goyan PJP, Grassel SM, Halbert ND, Kunkel K and Redford KH (2007) Second chance for the plains bison. Biological Conservation 136: 175-184 Fuller JA, Garrott RA, White PJ, Aune KE, Roffe TJ and Rhyan JC (2007) Reproduction and survival of Yellowstone bison. Journal of Wildlife Management 71: 2365-2372 Garmestani AS and Percival HF (2005) Raccoon removal reduces sea turtle nest depredation in the ten thousand islands of Florida. Southeastern Naturalist 4: 469472 Giardina AR, Schmidt KA, Schauber EM and Ostfeld RS (2000) Modelling the role of songbirds and rodents in the ecology of Lyme disease. Canadian Journal of Zoology-Revue Canadienne De Zoologie 78: 2184-2197 Ginger SM, Hellgren EC, Kasparian MA, Levesque LP, Engle DM and Leslie DM (2003) Niche shift by Virginia opossum following reduction of a putative competitor, the raccoon. Journal of Mammalogy 84: 1279-1291 Goethert HK and Telford SR (2003) Enzootic transmission of the agent of human granulocytic ehrlichiosis among cottontail rabbits. American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 68: 633-637 Gubanyi JA, Savidge JA, Hygnstrom SE, VerCauteren KC, Garabrandt GW and Korte SP (2008) Deer impact on vegetation in natural areas in southeastern Nebraska. Natural Areas Journal 28: 121-129 Hall JS, Bentler KT, Landolt G, Elmore SA, Minnis RB, Campbell TA, Barras SC, Root JJ, Pilon J, Pabilonia K, Driscoll C, Slate D, Sullivan H and McLean RG (2008) Influenza infection in wild raccoons. Emerging Infectious Diseases 14: 1842-1848 Han JI, Jang HJ, Lee SJ and Na KJ (2009) High prevalence of Theileria sp in wild Chinese Water Deer (Hydropotes inermis argyropus) in South Korea. Veterinary Parasitology 164: 311-314 Hegel TA, Gates CC and Eslinger D (2009) The geography of conflict between elk and agricultural values in the Cypress Hills, Canada. Journal of Environmental Management 90: 222-235 Heinz-Taheny KM, Andrews JJ, Kinsel MJ, Pessier AP, Pinkerton ME, Lemberger KY, Novak RJ, Dizikes GJ, Edwards E and Komar N (2004) West Nile virus infection in free-ranging squirrels in Illinois. Journal of Veterinary Diagnostic Investigation 16: 186-190 Henderson JC, Biek R, Hanlon CA, O'Dee S and Real LA (2008) Rabies virus in raccoons, Ohio, 2004. Emerging Infectious Diseases 14: 650-652 Hill AR and Duval TP (2009) Beaver dams along an agricultural stream in southern Ontario, Canada: their impact on riparian zone hydrology and nitrogen chemistry. Hydrological Processes 23: 1324-1336 Hobbs NT, Baker DL, Bear GD and Bowden DC (1996) Ungulate grazing in sagebrush grassland: Effects of resource competition on secondary production. Ecological Applications 6: 218-227 Hobbs NT, Baker DL, Bear GD and Bowden DC (1996) Ungulate grazing in sagebrush grassland: Mechanisms of resource competition. Ecological Applications 6: 200-217 Holmengen N, Seip KL, Boyce M and Stenseth NC (2009) Predator-prey coupling: interaction between mink Mustela vison and muskrat Ondatra zibethicus across Canada. Oikos 118: 440-448 Hood GA and Bayley SE (2009) A comparison of riparian plant community response to herbivory by beavers (Castor canadensis) and ungulates in Canada's boreal mixed-wood forest. Forest Ecology and Management 258: 1979-1989 Hubbard RD and Nielsen CK (2009) White-tailed deer attacking humans during the fawning season: a unique human-wildlife conflict on a university campus. HumanWildlife Conflicts 3: 129-135 Hussain A, Armstrong JB, Brown DB and Hogland J (2007) Land-use pattern, urbanization, and deer-vehicle collisions in Alabama. Human-Wildlife Conflicts 1: 89-96 IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. www.iucnredlist.org (accessed March 2010) Jog MM, Marathe RR, Goel SS, Ranade SP, Kunte KK and Watve MG (2005) Sarcocystosis of chital (Axis axis) and dhole (Cuon alpinus): ecology of a mammalian prey-predator-parasite system in Peninsular India. Journal of Tropical Ecology 21: 479-482 Joly DO, Samuel MD, Langenberg JA, Blanchong JA, Batha CA, Rolley RE, Keane DP and Ribic CA (2006) Spatial epidemiology of chronic wasting disease in Wisconsin white-tailed deer. Journal of Wildlife Diseases 42: 578-588 Kiasatpour S and Whitfield C (2008) Politics in action: Wolves, snowmobiles, and bison and the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem. Ps-Political Science & Politics 41: 193-206 Kilpatrick AM, Gillin CM and Daszak P (2009) Wildlife-livestock conflict: the risk of pathogen transmission from bison to cattle outside Yellowstone National Park. Journal of Applied Ecology 46: 476-485 Kim J-H, Kang M-S, Lee B-C, Hwang W-S, Lee C-W, So B-J, Dubey JP and Kim DY (2003) Seroprevalence of antibodies to Neospora caninum in dogs and raccoon dogs in Korea. Korean Journal of Parasitology 41: 243-245 King SL, Keeland BD and Moore JL (1998) Beaver lodge distributions and damage assessments in a forested wetland ecosystem in the southern United States. Forest Ecology and Management 108: 1-7 Koda R, Noma N, Tsujino R, Umeki K and Fujita N (2008) Effects of sika deer (Cervus nippon yakushimae) population growth on saplings in an evergreen broad-leaved forest. Forest Ecology and Management 256: 431-437 Koizumi N, Muto M, Tanikawa T, Mizutani H, Sohmura Y, Hayashi E, Akao N, Hoshino M, Kawabata H and Watanabe H (2009) Human leptospirosis cases and the prevalence of rats harbouring Leptospira interrogans in urban areas of Tokyo, Japan. Journal of Medical Microbiology 58: 1227-1230 Kumar S and Shibata E (2007) Establishment and growth of coniferous seedlings in an altered forest floor after long-term exclusion of deer. Journal of Forest Research 12: 306-311 Lacey JR, Jamtgaard K, Riggle L and Hayes T (1993) Impacts of big game on private land in south-western Montana - landowner perceptions. Journal of Range Management 46: 31-37 Litvaitis JA, Tash JP, Litvaitis MK, Marchand MN, Kovach AI and Innes R (2006) A range-wide survey to determine the current distribution of New England cottontails. Wildlife Society Bulletin 34: 1190-1197 Logiudice K (2003) Trophically transmitted parasites and the conservation of small populations: Raccoon roundworm and the imperiled allegheny woodrat. Conservation Biology 17: 258-266 Long ZT, Pendergast TH and Carson WP (2007) The impact of deer on relationships between tree growth and mortality in an old-growth beech-maple forest. Forest Ecology and Management 252: 230-238 Lunney D and Oconnell M (1988) Habitat selection by the swamp wallaby, Wallabia bicolor, the red-necked wallaby, Macropus rufogriseus, and the common wombat, Vombatus ursinus, in logged, burnt forest near Bega, New-South Wales. Australian Wildlife Research 15: 695-706 Margolis BE, Raesly RL and Shumway DL (2001) The effects of beaver-created wetlands on the benthic macroinvertebrate assemblages of two Appalachian streams. Wetlands 21: 554-563 McIntosh T, Rosatte R, Campbell D, Welch K, Fournier D, Spinato M and Ogunremi O (2007) Evidence of Parelaphostrongylus tenuis infections in free-ranging elk (Cervus elaphus) in southern Ontario. Canadian Veterinary Journal-Revue Veterinaire Canadienne 48: 1146-1154 Metcalfe CJ, Bulazel KV, Ferreri GC, Schroeder-Reiter E, Wanner G, Rem W, Obergfell C, Eldridge MDB and O'Neill RJ (2007) Genomic instability within centromeres of interspecific marsupial hybrids. Genetics 177: 2507-2517 Miller BF, Campbell TA, Laseter BR, Ford WM and Miller KV (2009) White-tailed deer herbivory and timber harvesting rates: Implications for regeneration success. Forest Ecology and Management 258: 1067-1072 Mortenson SG, Weisberg PJ and Ralston BE (2008) Do beavers promote the invasion of non-native Tamarix in the Grand Canyon riparian zone? Wetlands 28: 666-675 Murata I, Saruki S, Kubota K, Inoue S, Tashiro N, Enoki T and Utsumi Y (2009) Effects of sika deer (Cervus nippon) and dwarf bamboo (Sasamorpha borealis) on seedling emergence and survival in cool-temperate mixed forests in the Kyushu Mountains. Journal of Forest Research 14: 296-301 Nagaike T and Hayashi A (2003) Bark-stripping by sika deer (Cervus nippon) in Larix kaempferi plantations in central Japan. Forest Ecology and Management 175: 563-572 Naiman RJ, Pinay G, Johnston CA and Pastor J (1994) Beaver influences on the longterm biogeochemical characteristics of boreal forest drainage networks. Ecology 75: 905-921 Nakagaki K, Suzuki T, Hayama SI and Kanda E (2000) Prevalence of dirofilarial infection in raccoon dogs in Japan. Parasitology International 49: 253-256 Nation PN, Fanning EA, Hopf HB and Church TL (1999) Observations on animal and human health during the outbreak of Mycobacterium bovis in game farm wapiti in Alberta. Canadian Veterinary Journal-Revue Veterinaire Canadienne 40: 113-117 Nishi JS, Ellsworth TR, Lee N, Dewar D, Elkin BT and Dragon DC (2007) An outbreak of anthrax (Bacillus anthracis) in free-roaming bison in the Northwest Territories, June-July 2006. Canadian Veterinary Journal-Revue Veterinaire Canadienne 48: 37-38 Nishi JS, Shury T and Elkin BT (2006) Wildlife reservoirs for bovine tuberculosis (Mycobacterium bovis) in Canada: Strategies for management and research. Veterinary Microbiology 112: 325-338 Nupp TE and Swihart RK (2001) Assessing competition between forest rodents in a fragmented landscape of midwestern USA. Mammalian Biology 66: 345-356 Ostfeld RS, Canham CD, Oggenfuss K, Winchcombe RJ and Keesing F (2006) Climate, deer, rodents, and acorns as determinants of variation in Lyme-disease risk. Plos Biology 4: 1058-1068 Padgett KA, Reisen WK, Kahl-Purcell N, Fang Y, Cahoon-Young B, Carney R, Anderson N, Zucca L, Woods L, Husted S and Kramer VL (2007) West Nile virus infection in tree squirrels (Rodentia : Sciuridae) in California, 2004-2005. American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 76: 810-813 Page LK, Anchor C, Luy E, Kron S, Larson G, Madsen L, Kellner K and Smyser TJ (2009) Backyard raccoon latrines and risk for Baylisascaris procyonis transmission to humans. Emerging Infectious Diseases 15: 1530-1531 Palmer WE, Wellendorf SD, Gillis JR and Bromley PT (2005) Effect of field borders and nest-predator reduction on abundance of northern bobwhites. Wildlife Society Bulletin 33: 1398-1405 Paramasvaran S, Sani RA, Hassan L, Krishnasamy M, Jeffery J, Oothuman P, Salleh I, Lim KH, Sumarni MG and Santhana RL (2009) Ectoparasite fauna of rodents and shrews from four habitats in Kuala Lumpur and the states of Selangor and Negeri Sembilan, Malaysia and its public health significance. Tropical Biomedicine 26: 303-311 Parker JD, Caudill CC and Hay ME (2007) Beaver herbivory on aquatic plants. Oecologia 151: 616-625 Passler T, Ditchkoff SS, Givens MD, Brock KV, DeYoung RW and Walz PH (2010) Transmission of bovine viral diarrhoea virus among white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus). Veterinary Research 41: 20 Payeur JB, Church S, Mosher L, Robinson-Dunn B, Schmitt S and Whipple D (2002) Bovine tuberculosis in Michigan wildlife. Domestic Animal/Wildlife Interface: Issue for Disease Control, Conservation, Sustainable Food Production, and Emerging Diseases 969: 259-261 Pellerin S, Huot J and Cote SD (2006) Long term effects of deer browsing and trampling on the vegetation of peatlands. Biological Conservation 128: 316-326 Pietrzykowski E, McArthur C, Fitzgerald H and Goodwin AN (2003) Influence of patch characteristics on browsing of tree seedlings by mammalian herbivores. Journal of Applied Ecology 40: 458-469 Rafique A, Rana SA, Khan HA and Sohail A (2009) Prevalence of some helminths in rodents captured from different city structures including poultry farms and human population of Faisalabad, Pakistan. Pakistan Veterinary Journal 29: 141-144 Ratnaswamy MJ and Warren RJ (1998) Removing raccoons to protect sea turtle nests: are there implications for ecosystem management? Wildlife Society Bulletin 26: 846-850 Ratnaswamy MJ, Warren RJ, Kramer MT and Adam MD (1997) Comparisons of lethal and nonlethal techniques to reduce raccoon depredation of sea turtle nests. Journal of Wildlife Management 61: 368-376 Renfrew RB and Ribic CA (2003) Grassland passerine nest predators near pasture edges identified on videotape. Auk 120: 371-383 Retamosa MI, Humberg LA, Beasley JC and Rhodes OE, Jr. (2008) Modelling wildlife damage to crops in northern Indiana. Human-Wildlife Conflicts 2: 225239 Rollins D and Carroll JP (2001) Impacts of predation on northern bobwhite and scaled quail. Wildlife Society Bulletin 29: 39-51 Rosas CA, Engle DM and Shaw JH (2005) Potential ecological impact of diet selectivity and bison herd composition. Great Plains Research 15: 3-13 Saeki M and Macdonald DW (2004) The effects of traffic on the raccoon dog (Nyctereutes procyonoides viverrinus) and other mammals in Japan. Biological Conservation 118: 559-571 Samuel WM, Pybus MJ, Welch DA and Wilke CJ (1992) Elk as a potential host for Meningeal worm - implications for translocation. Journal of Wildlife Management 56: 629-639 Schmidt KA (2003) Nest predation and population declines in Illinois songbirds: a case for mesopredator effects. Conservation Biology 17: 1141-1150 Schmidt KA, Goheen JR, Naumann R, Ostfeld RS, Schauber EM and Berkowitz A (2001) Experimental removal of strong and weak predators: Mice and chipmunks preying on songbird nests. Ecology 82: 2927-2936 Sexsmith JL, Whiting TL, Green C, Orvis S, Berezanski DJ and Thompson AB (2009) Prevalence and distribution of Baylisascaris procyonis in urban raccoons (Procyon lotor) in Winnipeg, Manitoba. Canadian Veterinary Journal-Revue Veterinaire Canadienne 50: 846-850 Shibata E and Torazawa Y (2008) Effects of bark stripping by sika deer, Cervus nippon, on wind damage to coniferous trees in subalpine forest of central Japan. Journal of Forest Research 13: 296-301 Sietman BE, Dunn HL, Tucker JK and Kelner DE (2003) Muskrat (Ondatra zibethicus) predation on zebra mussels (Dreissena polymorpha) attached to unionid bivalves. Journal of Freshwater Ecology 18: 25-32 Singer FJ, Zeigenfuss LC, Cates RG and Barnett DT (1998) Elk, multiple factors, and persistence of willows in national parks. Wildlife Society Bulletin 26: 419-428 Slajchert T, Kitron UD, Jones CJ and Mannelli A (1997) Role of the eastern chipmunk (Tamias striatus) in the epizootiology of Lyme borreliosis in northwestern Illinois, USA. Journal of Wildlife Diseases 33: 40-46 Sleeman JM, Manning EJB, Rohm JH, Sims JP, Sanchez S, Gerhold RW and Keel MK (2009) Johne's Disease in a free-ranging white-tailed deer from Virginia and subsequent surveillance for Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis. Journal of Wildlife Diseases 45: 201-206 Small SL (2005) Mortality factors and predators of spotted Towhee nests in the Sacramento Valley, California. Journal of Field Ornithology 76: 252-258 Smith HT and Engeman RM (2002) An extraordinary raccoon, Procyon lotor, density at an urban park. Canadian Field-Naturalist 116: 636-639 Smits JEG (1991) A brief review of infectious and parasitic diseases of wapiti, with emphasis on western Canada and the northwestern United-States. Canadian Veterinary Journal-Revue Veterinaire Canadienne 32: 471-479 Staller EL, Palmer WE, Carroll JP, Thornton RP and Sisson DC (2005) Identifying predators at northern bobwhite nests. Journal of Wildlife Management 69: 124132 Stewart KM, Bowyer RT, Kie JG, Dick BL and Ruess RW (2009) Population density of North American elk: effects on plant diversity. Oecologia 161: 303-312 Storm DJ, Nielsen CK, Schauber EM and Woolf A (2007) Deer-human conflict and hunter access in an exurban landscape. Human-Wildlife Conflicts 1: 53-59 Takahashi M, Misumi H, Nogami S, Takahama M and Hirayama K (2001) Severe sarcoptic mange in the raccoon dog, Nyctereutes procyonoides, in Saitama and Gunma Prefectures, Japan. Medical Entomology and Zoology 52: 67-71 Thirgood S (2009) New perspectives on managing wildlife diseases. Journal of Applied Ecology 46: 454-456 Thompson AK, Samuel MD and Van Deelen TR (2008) Alternative feeding strategies and potential disease transmission in Wisconsin white-tailed deer. Journal of Wildlife Management 72: 416-421 Tiawsirisup S, Platt KB, Tucker BJ and Rowley WA (2005) Eastern cottontail rabbits (Sylvilagus floridanus) develop West Nile virus viremias sufficient for infecting select mosquito species. Vector-Borne and Zoonotic Diseases 5: 342-350 Tsukada H, Fukasawa M and Kosako T (2008) Is cattle grazing an effective deterrent against sika deer (Cervus nippon) intrusion into pastures? Grassland Science 54: 45-51 Tsukada H, Fukasawa M, Kosako T, Nakamura Y and Hanafusa Y (2009) Effect of distance from farm periphery on the risk of forage damage by sika deer (Cervus nippon). Grassland Science 55: 193-199 Tung KC, Hsiao FC, Yang CH, Chou CC, Lee WM, Wang KS and Lai CH (2009) Surveillance of endoparasitic infections and the first report of Physaloptera sp and Sarcocystis spp. in farm rodents and shrews in Central Taiwan. Journal of Veterinary Medical Science 71: 43-47 Tyrrell M and Hornbach DJ (1998) Selective predation by muskrats on freshwater mussels in 2 Minnesota rivers. Journal of the North American Benthological Society 17: 301-310 Ueda A, Hino T and Tabuchi K (2006) Deer browsing on dwarf bamboo affects the interspecies relationships among the parasitoids associated with a gall midge. Galling Arthropods and Their Associates: Ecology and Evolution: 229-240 Vercauteren KC, Lavelle MJ, Seward NW, Fischer JW and Phillips GE (2007) Fenceline contact between wild and farmed white-tailed deer in Michigan: Potential for disease transmission. Journal of Wildlife Management 71: 1603-1606 Walls JJ, Greig B, Neitzel DF and Dumler JS (1997) Natural infection of small mammal species in Minnesota with the agent of human granulocytic ehrlichiosis. Journal of Clinical Microbiology 35: 853-855 Wang XT, Werner BG, Konomi R, Hennigan D, Fadden D, Caten E, Soliva S and DeMaria A (2009) Animal rabies in Massachusetts, 1985-2006. Journal of Wildlife Diseases 45: 375-387 Wasserberg G, Osnas EE, Rolley RE and Samuel MD (2009) Host culling as an adaptive management tool for chronic wasting disease in white-tailed deer: a modelling study. Journal of Applied Ecology 46: 457-466 Williams ES, Miller MW and Thorne ET (2002) Chronic wasting disease: Implications and challenges for wildlife managers. Transactions of the North American Wildlife and Natural Resources Conference. Volume 67: 87-103 Williams SC and Ward JS (2006) Exotic seed dispersal by white-tailed deer in southern Connecticut. Natural Areas Journal 26: 383-390 Wobeser G (2009) Bovine tuberculosis in Canadian wildlife: An updated history. Canadian Veterinary Journal-Revue Veterinaire Canadienne 50: 1169-1176 Wywialowski AP (1999) Wildlife-caused losses for producers of channel catfish Ictalurus punctatus in 1996. Journal of the World Aquaculture Society 30: 461472 Yabsley MJ, Murphy SM, Luttrell MP, Little SE, Massung RF, Stallknecht DE, Conti LA, Blackmore CGM and Durden LA (2008) Experimental and field studies on the suitability of raccoons (Procyon lotor) as hosts for tick-borne pathogens. Vector-Borne and Zoonotic Diseases 8: 491-503 Zegers DA, May S and Goodrich LJ (2000) Identification of nest predators at farm/forest edge and forest interior sites. Journal of Field Ornithology 71: 207-216 Zeigenfuss LC, Singer FJ, Williams SA and Johnson TL (2002) Influences of herbivory and water on willow in elk winter range. Journal of Wildlife Management 66: 788-795 Birds Abraham KF, Jefferies RL and Alisauskas RT (2005) The dynamics of landscape change and snow geese in mid-continent North America. Global Change Biology 11: 841-855 Addison EM and Prestwood AK (1978) Oxyspirura turcottei (Nematoda, Thelaziidae) from eastern wild turkey (Meleagris gallopavo silvestris). Canadian Journal of Zoology-Revue Canadienne De Zoologie 56: 1218-1221 Airola DA (1987) Nest site competition between ospreys and Canada geese at lake Almanor, California. The Journal of Raptor Research 21: 121-124 Alderisio KA and DeLuca N (1999) Seasonal enumeration of fecal coliform bacteria from the feces of ring-billed gulls (Larus delawarensis) and Canada geese (Branta canadiensis). Applied and Environmental Microbiology 65: 5628-5630 Alisauskas RT, Ankney CD and Klaas EE (1988) Winter diets and nutrition of midcontinental lesser snow geese. Journal of Wildlife Management 52: 403-414 Allard K and Gilchrist HG (2002) Kleptoparasitism of herring gulls taking eider eggs by Canada geese. Waterbirds: The International Journal of Waterbird Biology 25: 235-238 Allen CE (1980) Feeding-habits of ducks in a green-tree reservoir in eastern Texas. Journal of Wildlife Management 44: 232-236 Allen Jr. HA, Sammons D and Brinsfield R (1985) The effects of Canada goose grazing on winter wheat: an experimental approach. Second Eastern Wildlife Damage Control Conference Artuso C (2007) Eastern screech-owl hatches wood duck eggs. 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Environmental impact 1.1 Competition 0 No impact known or detectable. 1 Very low level of competition with at least one native species, exploitation competition. 2 Competition with several native species by exploitation competition, without large impact on affected species or decline of their populations. 3 Competition with several species for food and/or space, interference competition, at least one native species declining. 4 Competition with many native species, several declining in population size, competition for food and/or space, behavioural changes in out-competed species. 5 Competes with species listed by IUCN (www.iucnredlist.org) as vulnerable, endangered or critically endangered, decline of these species, replacement or even extinction of species. 1.2 Predation 0 No impact known or detectable. 1 Predation known but negligible, no decline of native species. 2 Predation on several abundant species, without large impact on affected species or decline of their populations. 3 Decline of one to several native species recognized, and no changes in food web structure reported. 4 Decline of many species, indirect impact by mesopredator release, changes in the food web. 5 Preys also on endemic or species listed by IUCN as vulnerable, endangered or critically endangered, local extinction. 1.3 Herbivory 0 No impact known or detectable. 1 Similar impact as native species, no major damage to plants reported. 2 Similar impact as native species, recorded negative impact on flora, impact only on abundant species. 3 Generalist herbivore, impact through unselective grazing on plants adapted to grazing, limited damages to trees, minor changes in plant communities with impact on endemic species, negative impact on seed dispersal. 4 Grazing and damage to trees by bark stripping and/or antler rubbing, damage to endemic species, recorded vegetation change reversible. 5 Grazing in areas not adapted to large herbivores, e.g. island ecosystems, high damage through bark stripping and/or antler rubbing, threat to endemic plants and plant species listed as vulnerable, endangered or critically endangered according to IUCN, local extinctions or permanent community changes. 1.4 Transmission of diseases and parasites to wildlife 0 No impact known or detectable. 1 Host for non-specific parasites, occasional transmission of more or less harmless diseases to one native species. No population decline in native species. 2 Occasional transmission of more or less harmless diseases/parasites, several native species affected. No or only minor population decline in native species. 3 Many native species affected, frequent transmission of more or less harmless diseases/parasites or harmful diseases/parasites transmitted to one native species. Minor population decline in native species. 4 Transmits harmful diseases/parasites to several native species or more or less harmless diseases/parasites to species endemic or listed by IUCN as vulnerable, endangered or critically endangered. Moderate population decline in native species. 5 Transmits harmful diseases/parasites to many species and/or species listed by IUCN as vulnerable, endangered or critically endangered by direct transmission, decline of these species or extinction. 1.5 Hybridization 0 No impact known or detectable. 1 Hybridization possible in captivity, but only rarely in the wild. 2 Hybridization is more common in the wild, no offspring, but constraints to normal mating. 3 Hybridization is more common, with offspring, but not fertile. 4 Hybridization common with fertile offspring. 5 Risk of extinction of endemic species or species listed by IUCN as vulnerable, endangered or critically endangered. 1.6 Impact on ecosystem 0 No impact known or detectable. 1 Slight pollution of water bodies with possible eutrophication. Slight indication of impact on successional processes. 2 Damage of vegetation resulting in bank erosion, eutrophication of water bodies infrequent. 3 Eutrophication of water bodies more frequent, change in aquatic fauna and flora, soil compaction through trampling. Impact on successional processes, infrequently, medium intensity. 4 Severe erosion processes. Eutrophication of water bodies leading to decline of species and/or change in aquatic species composition. Strong impact on successional processes. 5 Eutrophication of water bodies leading to drastic decline of species and/or change in aquatic species composition, endemic species and/or species listed by IUCN as vulnerable, endangered or critically endangered affected. Strong impact on successional processes leads to loss of habitat characteristics, damage of sites of conservation importance. 2. Economic impact 2.1 On agriculture 0 No impact known or detectable. 1 Only occasional damage to crops or plantations, damage similar to native species. 2 Damage to crops more common. 3 Damage through feeding on crops, occasional threat to stored food, damage exceeds impact of the native fauna. 4 High damage in fields or to stored food, fruit consumption. 5 Complete destruction of fields or plantations, or of stored food by consumption or contamination. 2.2 On livestock/animal production 0 No impact known or detectable. 1 Occasional competition with livestock. 2 Competition with livestock, transmission of diseases to livestock in the native area, but not yet reported from the area of introduction. 3 Competition more frequent, with several livestock species, transmission of diseases reported, but infection rates low. Pollution by droppings on farmland which domestic stock are then reluctant to graze. 4 Transmission of diseases more common or hybridization with livestock possible. 5 Transmission of harmful diseases to or hybridization with livestock. 2.3 On forestry 0 No impact known or detectable. 1 Minor impact through herbivory. 2 Impact through herbivory, minor effect on forest growth, impact on seed dispersal. 3 Constrains forest regeneration through browsing on young trees, damage to plantations, gnawing of bark, damage by causing floods. 4 Moderate to strong damage to mature forest through seed consumption, bark stripping or antler rubbing, death of trees by felling or flooding. Killing trees by defoliating them for nesting material. 5 Very strong damage to mature forest through seed consumption, bark stripping or antler rubbing, death of trees by felling or flooding. 2.4 On human health 0 No impact known or detectable. 1 Host of one or more harmless diseases with the possibility of infecting humans, not yet reported. 2 Host of several harmless diseases, indirect transmission or possibility of direct transmission, but only a small percentage of the human population at risk, health hazard from soil and water contamination caused by droppings. 3 Direct infection with one or more harmless diseases, occasionally health threat through bites or other attacks. 4 Direct transmission of several diseases, infection by contaminated food common, host of harmful diseases in the native range, but not yet known from the invaded range. Health threat through bites or other injuries happen more often, rarely fatal. 5 Vector of harmful diseases to humans and/or many diseases frequently transmitted. Health threat through bites or other injuries happen frequently, more often fatal. 2.5 On infrastructure 0 No impact known or detectable. 1 Biological traits and lifestyle suggest potential damage to infrastructure, but not yet reported. 2 Occasional damage with minor economic losses, e.g. damage to fences. 3 Damage to fences and/or plantations, gnawing electricity cables etc., causing road accidents, nesting on current conductions. 4 High damage with considerable economic costs, damage through burrowing or nesting in buildings, impact through pollution, accumulations of droppings. 5 Considerable damage to flood defence systems, danger to human safety, including air safety. 2.6 On human social life 0 No impact known or detectable. 1 Noise disturbance, only small percentage of human population affected. 2 Noise disturbance more frequent and more intense, slight pollution of recreational areas. 3 Pollution of recreational areas more frequent. 4 Fouling and damage by trampling and overgrazing to rural and city parks and golf courses. Recreational value of a habitat or a landscape strongly affected. 5 Pollution of water bodies used for public recreation, which leads to eutrophication and algal blooms, complete loss of recreational value of a habitat or a landscape.
