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Advances in Environmental Biology, 8(22) November 2014, Pages: 69-72
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Advances in Environmental Biology
ISSN-1995-0756
EISSN-1998-1066
Journal home page: http://www.aensiweb.com/AEB/
Review on Potential Alternative Protein and Amino Acids Sources for Fish Feed: A
Malaysian Perspective
1Siti
Nurhafa Imra Naqtahnain Hamid, 1Siti Jamilah Hanim Mohd Yusof, 2Zarina Zakaria and
Abdullah
1Rozaini
1
School of Bioprocess Engineering, Universiti Malaysia Perlis, Kompleks Pusat Pengajian Jejawi 3, 02600 Arau, Perlis Malaysia
Engineering Academic Complex, Engineering Technology Department, Universiti Malaysia Perlis, Jalan Melati 1, Taman Haz Melati,
02450 Beseri, Perlis Malaysia
2
ARTICLE INFO
Article history:
Received 25 September 2014
Received in revised form
26 October 2014
Accepted 25 November 2014
Available online 31 December 2014
Keywords:
Aquaculture, protein, amino acids, fish
feed
ABSTRACT
The inconsistent supply of feed in the aquaculture industry has lead to a crisis in the
quality of fish produced. It is reported that the annual global fish meal production has
been more or less constant for the past 15 years and is not expected to increase.
Therefore, research should be conducted to discover other potential feed supplement to
reduce dependency on fish meal as sole protein and amino acid sources. In this paper,
the potential of several feedstuffs as alternative protein sources are discussed. Among
all, earthworm was proven to be good sources of amino acids which are important for
the growth of fish. Earthworm offers suitable amount of lysine and methionine and
further understanding on the contribution of these amino acids to the fish growth can
reduce the overall cost of fish feed production.
© 2014 AENSI Publisher All rights reserved.
To Cite This Article: Siti Nurhafa Imra Naqtahnain Hamid, Siti Jamilah Hanim Mohd Yusof, Zarina Zakaria and Rozaini Abdullah,
Review on Potential Alternative Protein and Amino Acids Sources for Fish Feed: A Malaysian Perspective. Adv. Environ. Biol., 8(22), 6972, 2014
INTRODUCTION
Aquaculture has sustained a global growth at present and is expected to increasingly fill the shortfall in
aquatic food products. Aquaculture activity is considered as the only alternative for development and
improvement of fisheries resources and revitalization of the ecosystems [1]. In addition, it also helps to increase
rural incomes through aquaculture entrepreneurship and also can close the income gaps within the country. In
Malaysia, majority still depends on fish and fish based products as the main source of animal protein and
accounting for about one fifth of all animal protein consumed in human diet [2]. According to Food and
Agriculture Organisation (FAO), average fish consuming in Malaysia in 2010 is 54 kg per year which indicate
high level compared to year 1970 which consumed only 20 kg per year [2]. The high dramatic increase in fish
consumption happened due to rapid population growth. In Malaysia, the freshwater fish industry is growing
rapidly due to technology advancement and government supports [3]. According to statistics department, fishing
on a commercial basis in fresh water industry is the second highest after ocean and coastal water industry with
192 or 22.5% establishments in year 2010. Freshwater aquaculture also has contribute RM155.4 million (10.5%)
to the value of gross output [4].
Fish feeds constitutes 40-60% of total cost of aquaculture production which is expensive and lead to
extensively studied to replace high cost of fish feed manufacturing [5]. Generally, the ingredients that are
essential for fish feed formulation are proteins and amino acids, lipids, carbohydrates, vitamins and minerals. In
addition, preservatives and attractants are also incorporated into fish feeds to extend shelf life and enhance feed
palatability respectively [6]. Protein is the major concern during formulation of fish feed. It is the most
expensive components in fish feed and the important factors that contributing to the growth performance of
cultured species [7]. It is the basic nutrient needed in fish feed ingredients [6,8]. Protein requirement in fish diet
can be related with the general energy requirement of the fish at certain water temperature and the ability to gain
weight at present capacity [9]. A typical commercial fish feed that are formulated for tilapia or catfish contain
approximately 32-40% of total protein [10].
Corresponding Author: Siti Nurhafa Imra Naqtahnain Hamid, School of Bioprocess Engineering, Universiti Malaysia
Perlis, Kompleks Pusat Pengajian Jejawi 3, 02600 Arau, Perlis Malaysia
E-mail: [email protected]
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Siti Nurhafa Imra Naqtahnain Hamid et al, 2014
Advances in Environmental Biology, 8(22) November 2014, Pages: 69-72
Fish Feed Alternatives:
Different ingredients are studied in the search for an alternative protein source for fish feed. Plant proteins
are locally available and have high potentials to supply required protein in fish feed [11]. Adeparusi and Agbede
[12] in his study has concluded that Leucaena leaf had a better protein gain and their leaf protein is good
supplement in Bam-nut diets for Oreochromis niloticus. But, differently processed of plant protein will affect
the utilization of fish feed in fish diets. Leucaena seeds processed by soaking in water give better utilization for
Clarias gariepinus compared to other processing method such as sun drying, toasting and soaking in alkaline
solution [11]. This is due to the presence of mimosine which are toxic and can be extracted about 90% through
soaking in freshwater [13]. The presence of mimosine and tannin in seed and leaf of Leucaena has limits the use
since it can affect thyroid function, lead to poor growth and interfere digestive process [13].
Groundnut cake is another alternative protein source. It has agreeable flavor [14], thus making it highly
palatable and has better binding properties compared to soybeans [15]. But, it is deficient with methionine and
lysine [10, 15]. When moldy, groundnut cake can become poisonous due to the presence of mycotoxin called
aflatoxin [8]. According to So and Si [15] groundnut can replace 10% of fish meal in the 44.17% of total crude
protein in diets of H. longifilis fingerlings which seems to be favorable.
Soybean meal is the most widely used protein sources in animal feeds globally. Moreover, soybean
demands are increased due to expansion of soybean usage in many industries including production of vitamin
and health-supplement, cosmetic, food consumption and poultry industries. Soybean meal also has been used
extensively to replace fish meal in fish feeds [16]. This is due to the riches benefits content in soybean meal
such as lysine, tryptophan, threonine, isoleucine and valine. In comparison, these amino acids are deficient in
corn, grain sorghum and other cereal grains that commonly fed to fish. However soybean meals are low with
methionine and cystine content [17]. Thus, the usage of soybean meal only as sole protein sources is not
recommended and it must be incorporated with another protein sources to balance the fish feeds. Siddiqui [18]
has incorpating 15% of soybean meal in diet of catfish fingerling and no reduction in growth and conversion
efficiencies has been reported. The inclusion was feasible without significant differences in growth parameters
compared to those fed with control diets and no mortality rates has been reported throughout the experiments
[18]. Nevertheless, proteins of plant origins usually low in methionine. Yuan [19] has suggested the addition of
extra lysine and methionine to soy protein-based diets to promote growth and health of fish. Plant origin protein
sources are not easily digested, due to the presence of anti-nutritional factor and an imbalanced amino acid
profile that can lead to loss of nutrients in egesta or through metabolic excretion [18]. Plant-based fish feed may
benefits fish with stronger immune response to certain toxins since several plant non-starch polysaccharides are
known to stimulate the immune system of fish. However, the exploration on this area is still at early stage [20].
Realising these problems, more attention and interest are given to animal protein such as poultry by-product
(offal, necks, head, feet and undeveloped eggs) [21]. Poultry by-products meal (PBM) can replace part or totally
of the fish meal in fish feed [22]. This is because it consists of several nutrients that are rich in fish meal and it
also has effective’s essential amino acid such as lysine and methionine and etc. It is highly palatable to most of
fish species compared to plant protein fish feed [23]. A study by Zhou [24] showed that fish fed with PBM were
not significantly lower compared to fish fed with mix of fish meal and soybean meal in terms of growth
performance and survival. But, the protein efficiency ratio and feed efficiency ratio were significantly affected
especially for fish fed with 30% and 40% PBM compared to others formulated diets [24]. Another study by
Rawles [25] shows almost similar results when 35% substituted fish meal with PBM significantly influence
weight gain but do not influence the feed conversion ratio. Discern of high protein content, PBM have food
safety issue and import and export limitation to some of the country that limit the usage of poultry by-product in
aquaculture feeds today [23].
Alternatively, earthworm can also be used in fish feed as a protein source [26]. It has been used in North
America as bait since 1940’s [27]. Earthworm meal was shown to have an amino acid composition very similar
to that of fishmeal and potentially superior to meat meal. Apart from that, the protein was shown to contain such
essential amino acids as phenylalanine, leucine, lysine, methionine and valine [28]. Table 1 shows the
comparison of nutrient content among several feedstuffs from different previous study. Due to its high
nutritional value, earthworm appears as the most promising ingredient as alternative source of protein. A study
by Sun [29] also showed that earthworm have high protein content which range of 54.6% to 71.0% dry matter.
This fact is strengthened by Zakaria [30] which concluded that earthworm powders worthy on attention in fish
feed formulation based on high protein content. Earthworm is also easily available due to easily cultivated, grow
extremely rapid and reasonably prolific. It has been known as excellent food for cultured fish species and as
dietary supplement for ornamental fish. Replacement 20-30% fish meal with earthworm species Eisenia foetida
and Eudrilus eugeniae has improved the growth performance of several fish such as tilapia, rainbow trout,
Oncorhynchus mykiss and common carp [31]. Earthworm consist high protein content and highly palatable to
fish [32]. The uneatable fish pellet will be biologically degradable and can acts as soil fertilizer to promote
plankton growth [33]. Rawling [31] has fed a tropical earthworm meal to replace fishmeal in mirror carp diet.
His study shows significant enhancement of growth and feed utilization efficiency at 66.35% replacement of
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Advances in Environmental Biology, 8(22) November 2014, Pages: 69-72
fishmeal protein with earthworm meal compared to control diet that was fed with fishmeal and soybean meal.
Moreover, there are no detrimental effects has been reported on the growth performance and feed utilization
when fed with earthworm meal [31]. Therefore animal protein is the most suitable protein because it contain
complete amino acid content for formulation of fish feed such as earthworm powder. Proteins of animal origin
are of higher quality compared to plant origin [33].
Table 1: Comparison of nutrient composition in different feedstuff
Feedstuff
% Protein
Earthworm [27, 34]
59.0-61.0
Soybean meal [35, 36]
43.35-48.5
Meat and bone meal [37]
58.5
Groundnut cake [36]
31.6
Leucaena leaf [12]
34.38
% Fat
9.0
1.0-1.5
13.4
10.0
12.5
% Ash
5.0-17.0
7.3
27.7
5.5
6.59
Conclusion:
Research on the fish feed is very important in aquaculture industry to provide a better understanding on the
nutrient requirements for fish growth. There are many potential protein sources that can be explored as a
replacement of highly expensive fish meal hence reducing the production cost in the aquaculture industry. Thus,
more study should be conducted to better define the availability of amino acid in various protein sources.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors are grateful for the financial support by RAGS grant (grant number: 9018-00001) from the
Ministry of Higher Education. Many thanks to lecturers of School of Bioprocess, Universiti Malaysia Perlis for
giving us assistance and useful information for the accomplishment of this paper.
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