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The Late Empire and Constantine
One of the last memorable rulers of Rome before its decline was Marcus Aurelius. He
succeeded Antonius Pius who had succeeded Hadrian
in the second half of the 2nd century. This bronze statue is
a portrait of him on horseback, and it is the only surviving
example of a traditional Roman monument: the Imperial
equestrian portrait .
The pose of a hero on his horse was popular, and historical
documents indicate that many other Emperors had equestrian
monuments as well. Unfortunately those did not survive.
They may have been destroyed, or they may have been
melted down for their bronze ( a risk for all metal arts in
wartime).
Why
were
equestrian monuments done in bronze rather
than marble?
The horse is spirited (with his stamping
foreleg and flicking tail), and Marcus Aurelius
is riding without stirrups (not invented yet)
but the Emperor controls him with one hand.
He reaches out in a gesture of authority and
benevolence. The
message seems to
be one of power
and control.
Marcus Aurelius wore a beard, which was a departure from the
clean-shaven tradition of Emperors before him. Historians speculate
about a connection between his beard and his statueʼs survival. They
theorize that when the early Christians in Rome began tearing down
their pagan past, they did not recognize him, and because of his beard
he was misidentified as either a Christian emperor or a Christian
patriarch. So of all the others, only this one was spared..
To avoid power struggles and ensure a smooth transfer of power., 1st century Emperors
traditionally adopted their chosen successors as their sons. Marcus Aurelius had been
adopted by Antoninus Pius, so when Pius died in 161, and he became Emperor he honored his
adoptive father and mentor with a public memorial.
The monument itself disappeared long ago, but its carved base survives. There are two panels of
relief sculpture that glorify Antoninus, one is his deification and the other is his apotheosis.. (look up
and explain what ʻapotheosisʼ is) These two events are imagined and executed with distinctly
different styles of representation.
In the Apotheosis, Pius and his wife are the being borne away on the shoulders of a winged
figure who represents eternity. The obelisk at the bottom left is a reference to time. At the
bottom right, a female figure wearing
Hellenic draperies and a soldierʼs helmet
is the embodiment of Rome. All three are
allegorical figures. (What is allegory, and
what is an allegorical figure?)
Some conventions of Classical art
borrowed from the Greek style are used
here: there is the idealized nude, the
partially draped figures with impassive
expressions, illusionistic space and a
faithfulness to naturalistic appearances.
(There are also some strange scale
relationships between the figures that are
very un-Greek)
In the Decursio scene, members of the Roman army perform the ritual of Piiusʼ deification,
which seems to involve a lot of fast
riding around in circles.
The space is ambiguous because
we seem to be looking down from a
high viewpoint on a circle of riders,
but they appear in profile.The
central group stands on little ledges
while half the army is racing along
a ground line and the other half
appears to be airborne.. People
are lined up comic-strip fashion and
their proportions are squatty, more
like dolls than ideals.
Their actions are emphasized over
their forms, which are concealed by
clothing and weapons. The horses
and their riders are lively and realistic, but there is nothing else remotely Classical about the
style of this work.
The Empire in decline
From the 2nd century on, Classical naturalism would gradually be eclipsed by a more naïve
style (some call it anti-classical) that was less refined, but it was
lively and expressive. After 300 years of emulating the Greek
ideal, were the Romans losing interest in it? Had it become
predictable and stale? Had Greek artists been replaced
by native Romans who followed their own direction? Was
Classicism too demanding for them? Was it a luxury in hard
times, when simpler images would serve just as well? Was the
Greek ideal receding farther into the past of distant memory?
Were Roman tastes growing more coarse as the Empire
declined? Was Classicism past full flower and well into its overripe decadent phase, after which it can only rot? (see the portrait
of Commodus at right)
Well, all these reasons are valid, but none of them is a complete
explanation. Three hundred years is a long time to aspire to the
same ideal in Art. Social changes must have taken place that
would have caused artistic changes. But the Roman Classical
style was held in place by the ruling class elite. The common
people had always been anti-classical and archaic in their tastes,
and they will grow stronger as their rulers weaken.
Marcus Aureliusʼ natural son, and successor, Commodus was a vain and destructive
Emperor, much like he was portrayed in the film ʻGladiatorʼ He was grandiose and occasionally
appeared in the arena, as a gladiator but his fights were always fixed. In this portrait he is posing
as Hercules, sharply dressed in his lion skin cloak with hood .Commodus was assassinated on
New Yearʼs Eve of the year 192, .and he would be succeeded by 6 other emperors before the next
year was out.
Without effective leadership the Roman Empire began to disintegrate: borders were not
protected, barbarian incursions went unchecked, laws were not enforced, taxes increased, the
bureaucracy grew more inefficient, and the future looked uncertain . The Roman peoplesʼ faith in
their traditional gods began to falter as they received no help from them.
New religions
A number of mystical Eastern religions appeared in the Empire during these times of
uncertainty, and a cult called Christianity was one of them. The Christians venerated Jesus.
Jesus may have been a historical person but his existence was not documented in any written
records during his lifetime, so no irrefutable evidence exists. If he lived, he was born in a remote
province of the Roman Empire. He preached a philosophy of charity, love, tolerance, faith
and acceptance that inspired a devoted following. He was condemned and was made to suffer
a dishonorable death by crucifixion.
. The life and death of Jesus, inspired a new world religion: Christianity.
Christianity offered
relief from suffering through faith and its central tenet was monotheism: one God. The
Roman Christians worshipped only Jesus. The Christian Romans were ascetic, they denied
themselves sinful pleasures in this world to more fully deserve happiness in the next: the
kingdom of heaven so they lived for the future. They placed Christ above any earthly political
interests, and made their allegiance only to him.
The pagan Romans immersed themselves in the immediate physical world. They embraced
sensuous pleasures and material luxuries, they lived in the present. They combined
religious with political authority by making their Emperors into divinities. The Romans were
not threatened by the Christiansʼ veneration of Christ, but they were frightened by the Christiansʼ
refusal to worship the other gods as well. Roman pagans feared the consequences of Christian
disobedience.
Period of Persecution:
As a result, the Christians were perceived as a dangerous subversive cult , and they were
persecuted from time to time, beginning in the first century. During this period of persecution,
(up to the 4th century) Christians had to hide to survive. Their religious rituals were outlawed
and could only be practiced in secret.
So they went underground. Fallling back on their
Etruscan ancestry, the Christian Romans dug into
the tufa deposits outside the city and opened up
underground passageways, burial sites and meeting
spaces, creating catacombs.
The catacombs were a network of interconnecting
underground tunnels. The more narrow passages
were carved with loculi, ( individual spaces for
tombs).. Many martyrs of the Early Christian era were
buried in the catacombs.
Some chambers (cubicula) were room-like and large
enough to hold a number of people for a worship
service. Other cubicula were smaller
chapels or family tombs. The open
walls and ceilings of the catacombs
are occasionally painted with early
Christian iconcography.
Here is an openwork cross-design.
Each arm of the cross frames a
scene from the story of Christ and
in the center is a representation of
Christ as the Good Shepherd.
Early Christian art was narrative : the story of Christ and the Christian faith were told visually. The
same images tend to appear again and again in the same way like ʻset-piecesʼ, until they become
instantly recognizable icons to the faithful.
Here is another representation of Christ the Good
Shepherd from the center of another cross-design in
another catacomb. Though they are not exactly alike in
appearance, their iconography is the same: Christ
protects a weak lamb by
carrying it on his shoulders.
The lamb is every believer
in need: “The Lord is my
shepherd, I shall not want”...
Psalm 23
Early Christian art retained some
classical characteristics. In this
sculpted Good Shepherd, Christ stands
with counterpoise (of sorts), his body
and face are naturalistic, the draperies
of his tunic reveal his form, his
proportions are graceful.
Sculpted figures of Christ were rare ,
(these are from the later period
of recognition) because marble
figure sculpture was overwhelmingly
associated with pagan idolatry. A
few examples survive. On the far left,
Christ is seated in the pose of the wise
teacher. Wise Teacher and Good Shepherd were the two principle roles assigned to Christ in the
early Christian era and he is usually portrayed as a beardless youth rather than as a mature man.
This painting from the third
century shows less concern
for Classical traditions . These
three youths were thrown into
a ʻfiery furnaceʼ for refusing to
worship idols. They pray for
help and a dove (?) descends
from heaven to deliver them
from the hot flames. They are
one figure, repeated three
times: their dress, pose, and
gestures are the same. The
flames are indicated by orange
brush strokes springing up close
to their feet, but there is no background, so there is no real concern with depth. They stand
with hips out thrust, (not really contropposto) in a line , arms outstretched, palms up, facing the
audience, like performers waiting for a round of applause. The style is lively and expressive, but
un-Classical.
It was not just Christian art that was evolving in this direction, even secular Roman art in the
late Empire preferred symbolic over naturalistic representations. Symbols were used as a
kink of visual shorthand: to communicate ideas as simply as possible. For example, the
Imperial portrait of the Four co-rulers: the Tetrarchs:
By the end of the 3rd century, Emperor Diocletian decided to share Imperial power and
responsibility. He established a tetrarchy
(the rule of four Emperors) and assigned
each of the four to govern a different part of
the Empire.
In their portrait, there is an emphasis on
group unity rather than individuality.
Each Emperor has the same face (?),
expression (or lack of it), clothing
and sword. The heads of the Tetrarchs
are large in proportion to their simplified
bodies. They stand firmly on both feet
without counterpoise. Two of the figures
reach to the side to clasp the shoulder of
their co-ruler while their bodies remain
frontal, making the attachment of their
own shoulder look odd.Their geometrically
patterned garments simplify their
bodies into cylindrical forms rather
than allowing the figure beneath the
clothing to create the shape . Their faces
lack not only individuality, but human
likeness: they all have the same deeply
furrowed foreheads, shallow eyes, and
harsh features ,that makes them appear
animalistic (primate-like) rather than
human. Even vitality and expressiveness
are missing.
Maybe by this time Roman civilization had forgotten how much it once loved the naturalism of
Greek classicism: the s-curve, ideal proportions, the beauty and expressiveness of the figure.
Maybe it had other things to worry about and the arts were not a primary concern as they once
had been, but when Diocletian commissioned, accepted, and displayed this anti-classical work, he
effectively endorsed archaism as an official Roman style.
The Tetrarchy was effective for a while, but eventually it gave way to a struggle for power between
two: Maxentius and Constantine, who each ruled half, but wanted to rule all of the Empire.
As he was about to meet Maxentius in battle, Constantine reportedly had a dream where Christ
appeared to him. Jesus told him he would win if he fought under Christian sponsorship, so
Constantine put the sign of the cross on the shields of his soldiers and Maxentius was defeated.
Whether this was a true vision and a spiritual triumph or just an inspired public relations move, no
one can say, but it worked.
The Period of Recognition
Constantine conquered Maxentius just outside the gates of Rome 312, and in the next year
he ended the persecution of Christians.
It is unclear whether Constantine actually became a Christian. He probably observed all religious
practices as an example of Imperial tolerance; however historical accounts say he was baptized on
his deathbed, then given a pagan burial. So he covered all the bases.
As Emperor of the Christian Roman Empire, Constantine undertook great building projects
to compare with his pagan Imperial predecessors.
To celebrate his victory over Maxentius, the
Senate built him a triumphal arch beside the
Colosseum.
Constantineʼs
arch
(originally
it was
Hadrianʼs, but
Constantine
ʻborrowedʼ it) had the traditional shape of a
rectangular block, but it was larger and enclosed
three arches rather than one. Constantine
added the upper level, and ʻborrowedʼ medallions, figures, columns, and capitals from preexisting monuments to 2nd century Emperors like Trajan, and Marcus Aurelius. These older
decorations were classical in style, but
Constantineʼs original decorations (see
diagram) have the doll-like proportions,
unnatural appearances, and lack of
individuality seen in the earlier Tetrarchs.
Constantineʼs decision to despoil older
monuments has been cited as evidence
of a decline in the culture of the late
Empire: because rather than create new images, he recycled old ones.
He may have wanted to surround himself with his predecessors as a validation, or he may have
been in a hurry, or the Triumphal arch might not have seemed to inspire, but when Constantine
turned his energies to building churches, he created the prototype for the Christian church that
has been in use ever since.
The Early Christian Church
Unlike pagan rituals which took place at an outdoor altar, Christians met indoors, they
needed a sanctuary where they could congregate and pray. When Constantine commissioned
the building of the first Christian churches in Rome, the basilica was the starting point.
The Roman basilica was a functional building
that handled the business of the Empire.
There was usually a basilica attached to the
forum of any Roman city. It was rectangular,
with one high-ceilinged center aisle that ran the
length of the building. Flanking it were two side aisles
with lower ceilings. Two colonnades ran the
length of the basiilica to support and separate the
three aisles.
The basilicaʼs central aisle/side aisle configuration
originated with the Egyptian hypostyle hall. A stepped roof line makes it possible to have high
clerestory windows for illumination of the buildingsʼs interior.
Originally the basilica was approached
from the side, so when one entered it, the
central aisle ran from left to right. For the
early Church, the approach was changed
to the end, so that when one entered, the
central aisle led straight ahead.
At one end of the basilica was a half
dome set on a half-cylindrical base
(think: half-Pantheon, only smaller) This
apse usually framed the cult statue of a
deity. In the Church, it would frame the
altar.
Constantine was responsible for building the
original St. Peterʼs basilica (see the diagram
at right) which stood for over a thousand years
until it was torn down in the Renaissance to
build the present St. Peterʼs.
Constantine also built a basilica dedicated
to himself in the old Roman Forum. It was
monumental in scale, and so was the cult
statue he commissioned for it. Both the
basilica and the statue exist only as ruins today.
These marble hands, arms, and head of Constantine
are all that remain. He was originally an estimated 30
feet tall, seated.. While his exposed limbs were carved
from marble, his torso was probably made from wood
covered with bronze . Only the marble fragments
have survived, the rest was lost after the Empire fell.
Constantineʼs head is almost 9 feet high. In his
face, emphasis is given to his eyes, which
seem large and expressive. His forehead and
hair are constricted. This may have been an
accommodation to the low viewpoint from which the
original audience would have seen him. Constantine
is not a realistic portrait head of a Roman patrician,
or a naturalistic Greek study; he is a monumental
symbol of Imperial power and authority.
His gaze is to the side. Rather than engaging the Romans
by looking directly at them, Constantine seems to be glancing
beyond them as if watching for any approaching threat to
Romeʼs safety and stability. He was occasionally challenged
by rivals like Licinius, whom he defeated in 324 near
Byzantium, in the Eastern Empire.
Shortly after that victory, Constantine declared Byzantium
the “New Rome”, renamed it Constantinople, made
Christianity the official religion of the Empire, and set out
to make it his new capital with the army, the church, and
his court.
At that time, Rome was increasingly vulnerable to the threat of
invasion by barbarian tribes north of the Alps, and the pagan
Romans were set in their ways and resistant to change, so
he would start fresh with a new capital in another place free
from those difficulties, a place where he could create the new
Christian Rome, and leave the old Empire behind.