Download HIS 32 (2016) – 7 – Coinage

COINAGE UNDER AUGUSTUS AS AN ASPECT
OF AUGUSTAN CULTURE
1. Significant innovations in what appeared on the coins
issued under Augustus more than justify these artistic
achievements being included as an important aspect of the
overall culture of the ‘Augustan Age’.
2. And Augustus fully grasped how coins could be used to
‘advertise’ this new ‘Augustan Golden Age.
3. YET there is no solid evidence that Augustus and his most
intimate political associates controlled the images on the
coins – which, as we’ll see, were very rich in their variety.
4. To fully appreciate what happened under Augustus, we
should perhaps glance at the history of the Roman state’s
coinage from the earliest issues until he came to power.
A SHORT HISTORY OF ROMAN COINAGE
1. Before about 270 BC, the Roman state (as a non-maritime,
inland state) made use, in common with other states in
central Italy, of two forms of bronze ‘currency’:
i) Aes signatum (“stamped bronze”) which took the form of
quite large bars of cast, stamped bronze weighing
anywhere between about 600 grams (1.3 lbs) and 2500
grams (5.5 lbs); and
ii) Aes grave (“heavy bronze”) – which comprised quite
heavy circular, cast discs weighing about 325 grams
(11.5 oz) and which were certainly in common use in the
early 200s BC.
It is not totally clear in what circumstances these were used.
The two sides of
an aes signatum
bar
Ingots of aes signatum
of this sort may reflect
events at “the Battle of
Beneventum” in 275 BC
against King Pyrrhus of
Epirus.
Allegedly Pyrrhus’
war elephants were
turned back by the
squeals of Roman pigs
These bronze discs (of the second kind: aes grave) belong
to about 260 BC and have a bull and a depiction of
Minerva
Two grains of barley and an open hand
Aes grave came in six denominations from
one uncia to one as.
The three dots indicate 3 unciae
2. Once Rome was in regular contact with the Greek states of
southern Italy (from the 270s BC onwards) SILVER COINS
began to be minted (copying Greek models) and became the
standard form of exchange.
3. Fairly typical was a depiction of MARS and of a HORSE’S
HEAD with an EAR OF GRAIN - and the designation
ROMAN(ORVM) [(“coin of the) ROMANS”]
4. For a short time there was a variety of depictions:
HERCULES and the SHE-WOLF
SUCKLING THE TWINS
MARS and a REARING HORSE
a JANUS-type figure
(said to be the DIOSCURI
[the twins Castor and Pollux])
A four-horse chariot
(a quadriga) driven by
Jupiter, with a winged
Victory by his side
(and ROMA)
5. Then, with the introduction (about 211 BC) of the silver
DENARIUS [a little smaller than a 5p coin] - which would become
the basic coin of the Roman state’s currency for some 400
years - the imagery seems to have become fairly standard
for decades:
a) the head of a helmeted ROMA (the deity who
personified Rome) on the obverse and
b) the DIOSCURI (the heavenly twins Castor and Pollux)
galloping on horseback on the reverse.
[They had, supposedly, appeared at the Battle of Regillus (496 BC) and helped
the Romans against ‘the Latin League’]
6. About the only variant was the depiction of VICTORY
driving a two-horse chariot (a biga) [rather than the
DIOSCURI]
7. And the only innovation was the regular appearance on
coins of
a) the INITIALS of one or other of the “moneyers”
responsible for the coin issue; and
b) the suspicion that (very rarely) a bolder “moneyer” was
engaging in a little fun with some mild ‘punning’.
About 160 BC the “moneyer” Furius Purpurio has
not only put an abbreviation of his last name PVR
(now standard practice) on his coin issue but also has snuck
in a murex shell from which Romans got their purple
dye, their purpura.
murex shell
PVR
8.a) From around 150 BC more adventurous “moneyers”
began to depict legends from Rome’s supposed past; and
b) to make reference more and more to the achievements of
their own remote and immediate ancestors.
In 58 BC (for example) the “moneyer” Marcus Aemilius Lepidus
has the head of a VESTAL VIRGIN and records his family’s
construction of “the Basilica Aemilia” in the Roman Forum in
179 BC (with renovations by more recent family members)
In 58 BC the same moneyer M. Aemilius Lepidus and his
colleague Pub. Plautius Hypsaeus record family
achievements
1) The submission of KING (REX) ARETAS, of the
desert kingdom of the Nabataeans, to M. Aemilius
Scaurus.
2) The capture of PRIVERNUM, a centre of the Volsci,
by an ancestor of Publius Hypsaeus
By the early 40s BC JULIUS CAESAR’s achievements in Gaul
are being referred to on the state’s coinage which is becoming
a medium for recording “news”
48-47 BC
The head of PIETAS (Piety/Duty)
GALLIC ARMS
CAESAR
THEN came the greatest innovation of all - JULIUS
CAESAR allowed his own head to appear on the coinage,
the first living Roman so to appear.
BUT it was not until January 44 BC – two months before
his assassination – that this happened.
[JUNO SOSPITA with spear and shield in a chariot appears on the other side of
the coin]
A denarius of Lucius Aemilius Buca also of 44 BC depicting
CAESAR as IMPERATOR (“military commander”) and
VENUS the ancestor of the Julian gens
After Caesar set the precedent, leading Romans began to
have their heads put on coin issues.
In 42 BC (two years after the assassination) Marcus Junius BRUTUS
is celebrated as IMP(ERATOR) BRVT(VS) with the wording
“the Ides of March” (EID. MAR) and with daggers and a
‘cap of liberty’ - by the moneyer L(ucius) Plaet(orius) Cest(ianus)
In light of the precedents set it would be strange if Octavian did
NOT start putting his head on coinage too.
43 BC
the heads of the deceased Julius CAESAR (still referred to as
“dictator perpetuus” and “Pontifex Maximus”) and OCTAVIAN who is now
called “CAESAR”. He is “consul” [COS], a pontiff (priest) [PONT]
and an augur [AVG].
-
Once OCTAVIAN formed the “Second” Triumvirate with
MARCUS ANTONIUS (and LEPIDUS), he and Marcus
Antonius both begin to appear (usually together) on coin
issues [as do Marcus Antonius and Lepidus]:
Marcus Antonius and Octavian are described as IIIVIRI REI
PVBLICAE CONSTITVENDAE (‘Members of the Commission of
Three for the Reorganization of the State’)
SOME COINS FROM THE PERIOD OF THE
TRIUMVIRATE
1. Although it would be during Augustus’ long 40-year
‘reign’ that the full ‘public relations’ value of the coinage as
a medium for spreading news came into its own, it was not
lost on ‘the Triumvirs’.
2. And so coins issued before the eventual defeat of Marcus
Antonius and Cleopatra in September 31 BC quite often
(understandably) talk of military victories, although there
are other themes.
Octavian depicted as Neptune - recording the
naval victory of 36 BC over the son of Pompey,
Sextus Pompeius who was causing difficulties from
THE COINAGE OF AUGUSTUS’ “REIGN”
1. Given that OCTAVIAN was at the helm of state for
another forty years after he became “Augustus”, it is not
surprising that the variety of coin issues is immense.
2. We can look at only a sample - best approached,
perhaps, by general category.
3. There were coins that
a) recorded things ‘political’ – principally honours
bestowed on Augustus himself;
b) recorded military achievements;
c) reflected some of the building activity, often connected
with the religion and the construction of temples and
shrines; and
d) There were coin issues which seem to be purely artistic.
4. The ones in this last category, although (with rare
exceptions) they always have the head of Augustus, do
not seem to convey any particular message - unless we,
today, do not have the key to interpret their meaning.
5. a) And it is the variety of coins in this last category that
lends credence to the argument that the “moneyers”
under Augustus had almost total free rein to express
themselves artistically and that the themes they chose
were not dictated by the new administration which
Augustus represented.
b) If so, the Augustan period is “transitional” – from the
types issued before the civil wars to those after Augustus.
COINS RECORDING VARIOUS HONOURS
Res Gestae 34: “I was
called Augustus by
decree of the Senate;
the doorposts of my
house were decorated
with laurel and over my
door was fixed a civic
wreath.”
“for saving citizens”
The civic wreath
(corona civica)
Res Gestae 34
“The doorposts of my house were decorated with laurel…”
“In the senate house was placed the golden shield, which the
Senate and the Roman People gave me for my valour, my
clemency, my justice, my ‘piety’”.
The golden shield CL.V (clipeus virtutis)
Note the laurel branches too
LEGES ET IURA P(OPULO) R(OMANO) RESTITUIT
“He restored laws and rights to the Roman People”
COINS RECORDING MILITARY AND RELATED
ACHIEVEMENTS
1. With the defeat of CLEOPATRA, Egypt became a new
territory of the empire.
2. “Egypt has been captured” the coinage declared and the
CROCODILE comes to symbolize that new “province”.
1. a) The Roman state had lost legionary standards to the
Parthians on more than one occasion - especially
under CRASSUS in 52 BC and under MARCUS
ANTONIUS.
b) The public had long demanded restitution; and
c) Augustus had a great diplomatic success in 20 BC when,
after a show of force, the Parthians agreed to hand them
back.
d) Coin issues proclaimed this success.
SIGNIS
RECEPTIS
(“THE STANDARDS WERE RECEIVED BACK”)
2. In 18 BC the “moneyer” Publius Petronius Turpilianus
decided to record the same event, with a kneeling Parthian
offering up a standard.
3. The freedom the “moneyers” still enjoyed is suggested by
the absence of the head of Augustus and the inclusion
instead of the deity FERONIA.
SUCCESSES AGAINST GERMAN TRIBES WERE
CELEBRATED
A German hands
over a small child
as a hostage
A kneeling German
surrenders
his military flag
Two soldiers (possibly Augustus’ stepsons Tiberius and Drusus)
offer palms to Augustus, likely after the successful
incorporation of the Alpine passes and Switzerland into the empire
ARMENIA HAS BEEN CAPTURED [hyberbole at its best]
Augustus’ negotiations with the Parthians saw an agreement
that the KINGDOM OF ARMENIA would be a neutral
‘buffer state’ between them.
This was presented to the Roman public a little differently.
THE CELEBRATION OF BUILDINGS AND OF
RELIGIOUS MATTERS
The new
Curia Iulia
(Senate House)
dedicated by
Augustus
The Temple of Mars Ultor (Mars the Avenger)
The Temple of IUPPITER TONANS
(“Jupiter the Thunderer”)
dedicated by Augustus in fulfilment of a pledge after
he had narrowly escaped being struck by lightning
during a thunderstorm in northern Spain
[The building is otherwise unknown]
APOLLO of ACTIUM
Augustus on a platform handing out incense
to two citizens on the occasion of the “Centennial Games”
(the LVDI SAECVLARES) in 17 BC as the culmination
of his religious programme
CELESTIAL REFERENCES
CAPRICORN holding a globe and a rudder with
a horn of plenty – a coin issue that remains a
puzzle since “Capricorn” was not Augustus’ sign.
A COMET WITH THE WORDING “THE DEIFIED JULIUS
A commemorative coin of 18 BC: Julius Caesar had been deified
on 1st January 42 BC
COINS WHICH APPEAR TO BE PURELY ARTISTIC
L. Aquillius Florus III vir
moneyer may be punning, given the Latin for “flower” is
flos, floris).
If he is, this harks back to a practice under ‘The Republic’ and,
again, shows the considerable freedom the moneyers had under
(The
The moneyer seems to have chosen to record the
growing prosperity of the times, especially in
agriculture
A denarius of the moneyer (III VIR) M. Durmius ca 18 BC
The lion bringing down the stag does not seem to have any
special message
Augustus was hailed “Imperator” for the 12th time in 10 BC
The previous depiction but on an aureus
A LYRE
The moneyers continue to put their own
names on their coin issues and seem simply
to have wanted to create something artistic
Marcus Durmius is the moneyer [III VIR]
A CRAB HOLDING A MOTH
Much ink has been used trying to explain the symbolism of what
is as likely to be a purely artistic representation