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Country Pasture/Forage Resource Profiles
TURKEY
by
Dr. Alptekin Karagöz
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© FAO 2006
3
CONTENTS
1. INTRODUCTION 5
Status of plant genetic resources in Turkey
6
Plant genetic diversity by geographical regions
7
Factors reducing plant genetic diversity
7
2. SOILS AND TOPOGRAPHY 8
Soils
8
Topography
8
3. CLIMATE AND AGRO-ECOLOGICAL ZONES 9
Climatic features
9
Agro-ecological zones
9
4. RUMINANT LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION SYSTEMS
Legislative arrangements for improvement of the ruminant sector
10
12
5. THE PASTURE RESOURCE 12
6. OPPORTUNITIES FOR IMPROVEMENT OF PASTURES RESOURCES 14
6.1 Fertilizing
14
6.2 Rotational grazing
15
6.3 Artificial pasture establishment and reseeding
15
6.4 Fallow reduction and forage production from fallow areas
15
6.5 Establishment of temporary or seasonal grazing areas
16
6.6 Forage legumes
16
6.7 Fodder conservation
16
7. RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT ORGANIZATIONS AND PERSONNEL 17
8. REFERENCES 18
9. CONTACTS 20
Country Pasture/Forage Resource Profile
5
1. INTRODUCTION
Turkey is located between 36º–42°
N and 26°–45° E, forming a land
bridge between Europe and Asia,
divided by the Sea of Marmara.
Total land area is 783 577 km2,
of which 759 752 km2 are in
Asia and 23 825 in Europe. The
Asian part is called “Anatolia”
and the European part “Thrace”.
The country is roughly rectangular and measures about 1 600 km
from east to west, and about
600 km from north to south. It is
surrounded by Georgia, Armenia,
Azerbaijan and Iran in the east,
Iraq, Syria and the Mediterranean
Sea in the south, the Aegean Sea
in the West, Greece and Bulgaria
in the north west and the Black Figure 1. Map of Turkey
Sea in the north (Figure 1).
The population was estimated at 65 311 000 in 2000 and according to the World Factbook was
70 413 958 in July 2006 with a growth rate of 1.06%. The agricultural population is declining. Half
of the population was involved in agriculture in 1983, but this is now 34% (22 205 740) (SIS – State
Institute of Statistics, SPO – State Planning Organisation)
Areas in different land use categories are shown in Table 1. Conditions in Turkey are favourable for
animal husbandry. Traditionally most farmers raise a few cattle, some small ruminants and poultry to
meet their domestic needs. There are 20 indigenous cattle breeds, 17 breeds of sheep and 5 breeds of
goat (Akman et al, 2000). The ruminant population in 2001 was 10 907 000 head of cattle and buffalo
(9 936 000 in 2004, and 35 693 000 head of sheep and goats (31 700 000 in 2004). Statistics for livestock
numbers; beef, veal, buffalo, sheep, goat meat and milk production; live animal, meat export and import
for the period 1995–2004 are given in Table 2. About 25% of the cattle are of high yielding breeds,
30% crossbreds and 45% indigenous. Agriculture accounts for 13.8% of the gross national product and
the share of the ruminant sector among all agriculture was 29.5% in 1999 (SIS, 1997; SIS, 2000; SIS,
2002a,b).
Most cattle are still under traditional management relying mainly on extensive grazing, and
receiving poor quality feed, particularly in winter, and in most cases very little veterinary care except
for vaccination. Similarly a high proportion of small ruminants are raised under traditional systems.
Since 1990 the number of small ruminants has decreased, while cattle numbers are almost stable. This
indicates a structural change in the livestock sector through a move to more intensive systems.
The total pasture area is estimated at 124 000 km2 but it is declining slowly for several reasons.
Pasture is still the main source of feed; traditionally pasture areas belong to the state and are open
for common use. The newly passed (1998) Pasture Law Table 1. Agriculture and forest area 2001
brings a new regime to pasture ownership (Büyükburc Land use
Area in hectares
and Arkac, 2000). According to the Pasture Law, pastures Area sown
18 092 000
will be assigned to municipalities or village communities Fallow land
4 914 000
1 425 000
once their boundaries are determined and certified. After Fruit orchards
Vineyards
525 000
certification is completed, carrying capacity and duration of
Olive groves
600 000
grazing will be determined for each area, then the villages
Vegetable gardens
799 000
will be given the right to graze the previously determined Forest
20 703 000
and certified areas for a given period of time with the set TOTAL
47 058 000
number of animals.
(SIS, 2002a)
Country Pasture/Forage Resource Profile
6
Table 2. Turkey: Livestock numbers; meat+milk production and meat+milk imports and exports for
the period 1996–2005
Item
1996
Cattle, head (.000)
Buffalo, head (.000)
Sheep, head (.000)
Goats, head (.000)
Horses, head (.000)
Asses, head (.000)
Mules, head (.000)
Beef & veal (mt. ,000)
Buffalo meat (mt. ,000)
Mutton & lamb (mt. ,000)
Goat meat (mt. ,000)
Total milk (mt. ,000)
Live animals imports (M US $)
Live animal exports (M US $)
Meat and products imports (M US $)
Meat and products exports (M US $)
Milk equivalent imports (M US $)
Milk equivalent exports (M US $)
11 789 11 886 11 185 11 031 11 054 10 761 10 548 9 804 9 789 10 069
255
235
194
176
165
146
138
121
113
104
33 791 33 072 30 238 29 435 30 256 28 492 26 972 25 174 25 431 25 201
9 111 8 951 8 376 8 057 7 774 7 201 7 022 6 780 6 772 6 609
415
391
345
330
309
271
271
249
271
271
731
689
640
603
555
489
462
417
462
462
169
154
142
133
125
99
97
95
97
97
301.8 379.5
359 349.7 354.6 331.6 327.6 290.5 365.0 367.0
3.1
5.6
4.8
5.2
4.1
2.3
1.6
1.7
2.0
1.9
311
324
317
313
321
303
286
267
273
272
55
54
57
55
53
48
46.5
45
45
45
10 761 10 077 9 971 10 082 9 794 9 496 8 409 10 611 10 679 10 538
165
17
25
23
33
22
15
11
9
n.r.
83
81
47
10
0.7
42
28
6
5
n.r.
26
1.3
0.4
0.4
1.2
0.4
0.1
0.2
0.4
n.r.
21
23.2
21.6
15.6
12.5
18
14
20
24.8
n.r.
33.8
28.4
33.7
32.7
32.7
15.9
23.9
40.3
56.7
n.r.
13.9
17.8
12.8
13.9
14.7
16.2
22.0
29.6
35.5
n.r.
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
FAOSTAT, 2006
n.r.=no record
Farm size is a limiting factor for agricultural
productivity. Over 85% of enterprises are under
10 hectares(Table 3). This corresponds to 42%
of the total cultivated land. Additionally, 57% of
the enterprises have over 4 plots (Table 4). Land
fragmentation is a serious drawback to mechanized
agriculture and to increasing production.
Table 3. Distribution of agricultural enterprises
according to land sizes*
Size of
enterprise
(ha)
Number of
enterprises and %
Number
%
<2.0
2.0-4.9
5.0-9.9
10.0-19.9
20.0-49.9
>50.0
Total
1 486 939
1 274 609
713 149
383 323
173 774
36 838
4 068 432
36.55
31.33
17.53
9.42
4.27
0.91
100.00
Total cultivated
area and %
Area (ha)
%
1
3
4
4
4
4
23
322
866
675
921
648
016
451
065
896
069
663
732
662
087
5.64
16.49
19.94
20.98
19.82
17.13
100.00
Status of plant genetic resources in Turkey
Due to its great variety in geomorphology,
topography and climate, Turkey has large diversity *SIS, 1994
of habitats so it is very rich in plant species and
Table 4. Number of plots per agricultural
endemism. The number of native ferns and seed enterprise*
plant species is about 8 745 (Davis, 1988), 2 763 Number of plots
Percentage
of which are endemic (32%) (Kaya et al., 1997). 1-3
43.3
It is scientifically agreed that two of the Centres of 4-5
22.8
19.1
Diversity and Centres of Origin – the Near Eastern 6-9
14.8
and the Mediterranean – overlap at Anatolia. Turkey >=10
TOTAL
100.0
is a centre of origin of such cultivated plants as
*SIS, 1994
Linum, Allium, Hordeum, Secale, Triticum, Avena,
Cicer, Lens, Pisum, Vitis, Amygdalus, Prunus, Beta
etc. Turkey is also microcentre for Amygdalus, Malus , Pistachio, Prunus, Pyrus, Cucumis, Cucurbita,
Lens culinaris, Lupinus, Medicago, Onobrychis viciifolia, Phaseolus vulgaris, Trifolium, Vicia faba,
Vitis vinifera and Zea mays.
Pasture and forage plants: Forage crops are the main cultivated source of forage and raw material for
the feed industry. Their production area is very small, only 3% of the total agricultural area of the country.
Pastures have lost their productivity due to continuous and irregular grazing. Natural pasture is, however,
the main plant genetic source for many species of legumes (Leguminoseae), grasses (Gramineae) and other
families. Common vetch (Vicia sativa), bitter vetch (Vicia ervilia), the other 57 wild Vicia spp., chickling
vetch (Lathyrus, 59 species), sainfoin (Onobrychis, 52 species), clover (Trifolium, 95 species), lucerne
(Medicago, 30 species) and sweet clover (Melilotus, 10 species) are the main forage legumes. Turkey is also
rich in grasses such as wheat grass (Agropyron spp.), fescues (Festuca spp.), and rye grass (Lolium spp.).
Country Pasture/Forage Resource Profile
7
Forests trees: Trees in this group include the natural or cultivated ones used as firewood, or timber
in industry. They also serve for protective (prevention of erosion and climatic, hydrologic and air
pollution) and recreational purposes. Important forest trees are the following: pine (Pinus brutia, P.
nigra, P. sylvestris, P. halepensis and P. pinea), fir (Abies nordmanniana subsp. nordmanniana, subsp.
bornmulleriana, subsp. equitrojani, and Abies cilicica subsp. cilicica, subsp. isaurica), cedar (Cedrus
libani), beech (Fagus orientalis), oriental spruce (Picea orientalis), lime (Tilia), red alder (Alnus spp.),
junipers (Juniperus spp.), and oaks (Quercus, about 20 species). Poplar (Populus spp.) and eucalyptus
(Eucalyptus) are the most important forest and timber trees .
Plant genetic diversity by geographical regions
East Anatolia: This region is very rich in forage and pasture plants and a gene centre for a number of them
such as lucerne (Medicago), clover (Trifolium), vetch (Vicia), sainfoin (Onobrychis), and chickling vetch
(Lathyrus). The area is generally at high altitude and the pastures are severely degraded by heavy grazing.
The most persistent grass species of the pastures are fescue (Festuca) and wheat grass (Agropyron).
Although this is the coldest part of the country and heavy grazing has been going on for many decades
causing serious genetic erosion, it is still possible to find very valuable plants in the pastures. This is
because the native pasture plants are highly persistent and very well adapted to the conditions of the area.
South Eastern Anatolia: The region is at the northern end of the “Fertile Crescent” which is considered
the primary gene centre for cereals and food legumes. The area is very rich in wild relatives of wheat
(Triticum), lentil (Lens), chickpea (Cicer) and some of the forage plants such as peas (Pisum), vetch
(Vicia) and chickling vetch (Lathyrus). Pistachio (Pistacia), Euphrates poplar (Populus euphratica), oak
(Quercus brantii), red pine (Pinus brutia), and wing-nut (Pterocarya fraxinifolia) are native to the area.
Mediterranean: This is the most important region for forest trees and wild plants. The rate of endemism
is very high. Chickpea (Cicer), medicinal and aromatic plants (Sideritis spp., Origanum spp.), laurel
(Laurus nobilis), caper (Capparis spinosa) and bulbous-tuberous plants (orchids) have priority in this
region. The region is also very important for trees: cedar (Cedrus libani), Taurus fir (Abies cilicica),
beech (Fagus), junipers (Juniperus) and olive (Olea).
Aegean and Marmara: As in the Mediterranean Region, there are many wild relatives of cultivated
plants such as wheat (Triticum), chickpea (Cicer), broad bean (Vicia faba) and forest trees, as well as
many endemic species. The Aegean region is very rich in orchids (Orchis), sweet marjoram (Origanum),
ironwood worth (Sideritis), and walnut (Juglans regia), stone pine (Pinus pinea), Kazdagi fir (Abies
nordmanniana ssp. equi-trojani), olive (Olea europea); almond (Amygdalus communis), and sweetgum
(Liquidambar orientalis); the Marmara region is rich in chestnut (Castanea sativa), alder (Alnus), and
hornbeam (Carpinus). Kazdagi Mountain (Ida) is one of the most important areas of the country from
the viewpoint of genetic diversity.
Black Sea Region: This region is important for such forest trees as pine (Pinus), fir (Abies), spruce
(Picea), lime (Tilia), fruits (Prunus, Cerasus, Pyrus), medicinal and aromatic plants, snow drop
(Galanthus), autumn crocus (Colchicum), marjoram (Origanum) and some pasture plants.
Central Anatolia: Much of the grazing areas are covered with steppe vegetation. Lucerne (Medicago)
and wheatgrass (Agropyron) show wide diversity. Milkvetch (Astragalus) are very typical plants
of degraded pastures. The transitional zone between northern and southern Anatolia is very rich in
endemic plants. Forest trees remaining are elm (Ulmus), black pine (Pinus nigra) and Scots pine (Pinus
sylvestris). Rose (Rosa), sage (Salvi), rock rose (Cistus) and many other shrubs and herbaceous plants
are also native to the area. The Salt Lake area is very rich in plant species as well as endemism.
Factors reducing plant genetic diversity
It is generally accepted that the present dominant steppe vegetation in a great part of the country is the
result of long term anthropogenic activity. Most of the area was once covered with forests. Turkey has
8
Country Pasture/Forage Resource Profile
been a pathway for many civilizations and hosted many of them. Change has become faster in the last
century and is now of dangerous dimensions, especially due to the rapid population growth in recent
decades. Particularly after the 1950s, mechanization of agriculture, industrialization and tourism have
increased the pressure on biological diversity. The most important consequences of these effects are
reduction and fragmentation of natural habitats.
2. SOILS AND TOPOGRAPHY
Soils
Turkish soils are diverse and several soil groups have been recognized in different geographical zones.
Major groups by region can be outlined as follows:
Black Sea coasts – podsolic soils; Aegean and Mediterranean coasts – Mediterranean Soils;
mountains and high elevation areas with sufficient rainfall – forest and rendzina soils; arid areas – brown
and reddish brown soils; semi arid areas – lime free brown, chestnut and reddish chestnut soils; plains
and adjacent slopes – alluvial and colluvial soils, and finally volcanic areas – volcanic soils. This is a
quite a generalized outline and it does not cover the other minor soil groups.
Land use capability classes and their share in total land area are given in Table 5 (General Directorate
of Soil and Water, 1978) Over two thirds of the country consists of classes VI and above.
Topography
Turkey is a high altitude country with an average altitude of 1 131 m. Low (0–250 m), medium (250–1 000 m)
and high altitude areas (>1 000 m) constitute 10.0, 34.5 and 55.5% of the total area respectively (Table 6).
Turkey’s topography exhibits significant variation where ecological factors change sharply over very
short distance. The European section (Thrace) is a fertile hilly land. The Asian part (Anatolia) consists
of an inner high plateau with mountain ranges along the north and south coasts. The plateau extends
from the west to the Aegean coast, with many river valleys. Southern mountain range (Taurus) at the
east curves round in an arc to the South East Taurus Mountain, embracing the outer plateau, the Fertile
Crescent which is the northern extension of the Syrian Desert. The plateau falls gradually to sea level in
West Anatolia, and terminates in a series of promontories which face the Aegean Sea.
Central Anatolia is a high plateau at an elevation between 800 and 1 000 m, with several mountains rising
much higher. Towards the inner part, the plateau slopes gradually to a flat basin containing a large salt lake.
In the north of Anatolia, mountain ranges get higher and closer
to the sea towards the east, allowing a narrow green, fertile belt. Table 5. Land use capability
classes and % of land area of
At many points of Black Sea region, mountain ranges rise to over Turkey
3 000 m. Altitude falls gradually towards the west of northern Soil use Total area (ha)
%
classes
mountain range. Several rivers cut their way on to the plateau.
4 973 162
6.53
East Anatolia is higher and much more mountainous, the level I
6 705 943
8.81
of the plateau itself reaches over 1 700 m in the further eastern II
III
7 532 049
9.89
part. There are several volcanoes in the plateau rising up to over IV
7 163 439
9.41
3 000 m. The highest mountain of the country, Agri (5 172 m) is V
165 076
0.22
in the east of the region.
VI
10 189 857
13.39
36 232 151
47.59
South East Anatolia is much lower and flatter than East Anatolia VII
VIII
3
163
654
4.16
falling from 800 m in the north to 400 m at the Syrian border. Two
major trans-boundary rivers, Firat (Euphrates) and Dicle (Tigris), Table 6. Distribution of area by
are important water resources. The topography of the region is altitude
very suitable for construction of a series of dams to meet national Altitude (m)
Ratio to total land
area (%)
energy and irrigation requirements. The region is flat in the south
0–250
10.0
and hilly in the north. Karaca Dag (1 919 m), a basaltic mountain,
250–1 000
34.5
is the highest point in the area.
1 000–1 500
30.0
The South Anatolian coastline is very steep with deep gorges 1 500–2 000
15.5
separating the mountain range of Central Taurus massif which > 2 000
10.0
Country Pasture/Forage Resource Profile
9
continues north-eastwards as the Anti-Taurus. The eastern arm continues southwards as the Amanus
range which runs close to the Gulf of Iskenderun until it reaches the Syrian frontier at Akra Dag.
Thrace is topographically very heterogeneous. The Istranca mountains which border the Black sea
are a low continuation of the northern range of Anatolia and are composed largely of schist. Most of
this region is occupied by undulating plains drained by the river Ergene. On the northwest of the Sea of
Marmara is the low sandstone range of Tekir Mountains which continues southwards into the Gelibolu
Peninsula.
3. CLIMATE AND AGRO-ECOLOGICAL ZONES
Climatic features
Being in the temperate zone and due to significant topographic and ecological variations over short
distances, Turkey has a variety of climatic types. The average annual temperature varies between
18–20 0C on the south coast, falls to 14–15 0C on the west coasts and depending on the elevation,
fluctuates between 4–18 0C in the interior. Highest temperatures are recorded in July and August. Average
temperature during these two months is 27 0C on the Mediterranean and Aegean coasts; 22–24 0C on the
Marmara and Black Sea coasts. Likewise interior parts of the country have hot summers. However, in the
east Anatolian plateau and north eastern parts, summers are cooler. Substantial temperature variations
are observed between the coast and the interior in winter. The winters are cold in the east and interior
and relatively warm on the south coasts. Annual average temperature in January and February is around
0 0C in the east, 5–7 0C on the north and west coasts and 8–12 0C on the south coasts.
Turkey is subject to both a continental climate characterized by rainy weather throughout the year and
also to a subtropical climate distinguished by dry summers. Heavy rainfall is general on the mountain
slopes facing the sea. Moving towards the interior the rainfall generally decreases. Thus there is a
substantial variation with respect to precipitation between parts of the coastline mountains facing the seas
and those facing the interior regions. Autumn is the start of the rainy season, which continues until late
spring on the Marmara, Mediterranean and Aegean coasts. The Black Sea coasts receive rain throughout
the year; in this region, the amount of rainfall steadily decreases in an east-west direction from 2 000 to
600 mm/year. In the interior and South-eastern Anatolia, rainfall mostly occurs in spring. Throughout
much of the area snow lies in winter above 1 000 m. In the east of Turkey, rainfall occurs in spring; winter
temperatures are much lower then the rest of the country, particularly in the highlands of this region nearly
the whole area is under snow from November to March or April. Although the west and south coasts are
near the sea, they receive less rainfall then the Black Sea coasts. These regions are very dry in summer
but humidity is higher than inner and eastern parts of the country.
Agro-ecological zones
Turkey is characterized by extreme geo-climatic diversity which permits the production of a wide
range of livestock and crops. There are several publications concerning the climatic zones of Turkey.
Depending on the method used up to 22 agro-ecological zones and several sub zones were determined.
For practical reasons to reflect the similarities of pastoral and animal husbandry systems, the
classification developed by State Institute of Statistics (SIS, 1994) will be used in this document. The
SIS recognizes nine agricultural zones (AZ) in Turkey; (1) Central North, (2) Aegean, (3) Marmara
and Thrace, (4) Mediterranean, (5) North East, (6) South East, (7) Black Sea, (8) Central East, and (9)
Central South. The main characteristics of the agricultural zones (AZ) are as follows: (Figures in the
map refer to Agricultural Zones)
AZ 1 - Central North:Continental climate with annual rainfall of 375 mm/yr. Rainfed cereals, food
legumes and forage legume production. Extensive small ruminants, intensive dairy cattle.
AZ 2 - Aegean: Mediterranean climate with annual precipitation up to 800 mm/yr. Extensive small
ruminant and beef cattle, intensive dairy cattle. Rainfed cereals, olives, figs, irrigated cotton.
10
Country Pasture/Forage Resource Profile
Figure 2. Agricultural zones of Turkey
AZ 3 - Marmara and Thrace:Cereals, sunflower, olives, vegetables. Important cattle region with many
pure and cross bred animals for milk and meat production. Proportion of pasture areas are only 9% of
total land area. Precipitation 700 mm/yr.
AZ 4 - Mediterranean:Western coastal area. Annual average rainfall up to 700 mm/yr. Rainfed and
irrigated cereals, olives, cotton, citrus, maize. Livestock less important. Significant goat meat production.
AZ 5 - North East:Hilly and mountainous high elevation area. Coldest part of the country with 100–180
days of frost/yr. Pastures occupy 75% of the total land area. Extensive livestock production. Subsistence
cereal production.
AZ 6 -South East:Large fertile plains in the southern part. The biggest irrigation project (GAP Project)
under process. Extensive sheep production. Rainfed cereals and food legumes, irrigated cotton.
Increasing use of irrigation.
AZ 7 - Black Sea:Annual average rainfall of 1 500 mm. Rainfed hazelnuts, vegetables, maize, tea.
Significant local cattle production and extensive sheep raising.
AZ 8 - Central East:Rainfed cereal, food legume production. Extensive small ruminant production.
Local and cross-bred cattle for milk. Annual average precipitation 400 mm, days of frost 80–120. Pasture
areas cover 54% of the total land area.
AZ 9 - Central South:Extensive small ruminants, intensive dairy cattle. Rainfed cereals, food legumes
and forage production. Annual precipitation 350 mm/yr, days of frost 80–100.
4. RUMINANT LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION SYSTEMS
Turkey’s ruminant livestock resources in 2001 consisted of 10 761 000 cattle (in 2005–10 069 000),
28 492 000 sheep (in 2005 – 25 201 000) and 7 201 000 million goats (in 2005 – 6 609 000). Cattle
numbers in Turkey have not changed significantly in the last 30 years while sheep, goat and buffalo
numbers decreased steadily in the same period. The changes in ruminant numbers reflect the preferences
of animal raisers.
Starting from the establishment of the Republic of Turkey, large ruminants have been preferred over
other kinds of farm animals. Several steps have been taken by the government to increase large ruminant
production; the main efforts have been given to genotype improvement. Initially local breeds were
improved through selection; several breeds were thus treated. Then State Farms established programmes
to distribute pure and cross-bred livestock to farmers. Later on artificial insemination centres were
started by the government. In remote areas, where artificial insemination was not feasible, bulls of high
Country Pasture/Forage Resource Profile
11
yielding breeds were provided temporarily Table 7. Share of pure, cross-bred, local cattle, sheep
or permanently (free of charge) to villages. and goats by agricultural zones*
Share of the region in total number of
In the meantime several research and Agricultural
regions
ruminants
extension projects have been organized
Large ruminants
Small
ruminants
with local and foreign resources. Subsidies
Pure X-bred Local Total Sheep Goat
have been provided to inputs such as
1.Central-North
10.2
20.1
12.5
14.2
12.0
9.9
breeding material, medicine, feed and
2. Aegean
24.0
12.7
6.1
12.5
10.9
20.3
shelter, and animal health care. Animals 3. Marmara
19.1
6.1
1.8
7.4
4.3
2.5
were vaccinated free of charge against 4.Mediterranean
5.2
11.3
6.2
7.5
6.0
25.5
infectious diseases. Importation of pure 5. North East
3.2
9.7
21.6
13.4
13.2
4.0
3.4
4.0
16.2
9.3
26.3
21.1
breeds has been accepted practice by all 6.South East
11.9
20.7
16.8
16.7
4.1
1.3
governments. The general trend in the 7. Black Sea
8. Central-East
5.9
7.3
12.7
9.4
8.9
4.7
last 10 years is importation of pregnant
9. Central-South
17.2
8.2
6.1
9.5
14.3
10.7
animals. Consequently the share of pure TURKEY
24.9
30.1
45.0 100.0
100.0 100.0
and cross-breeds in Turkey has increased to *Akman et al, 2000, Kaymakci et al., 2000
54.9% in 2000. Shares of pure, cross-bred,
local cattle, sheep and goats by agricultural zone are given in Table 7.
Figures in Table 7 reflect livestock production systems in each agricultural region. It is well known
that pure and cross-bred cattle require better conditions than local breeds. About 71% of all the pure
breeds are found in Central-North, Aegean, Marmara and Central-South where intensive cattle breeding
is the best developed in Turkey. In areas like the North East, South East and Central-East, extensive
animal feeding is the general practice . These regions are important sheep raising areas. About half of
the sheep and local cattle breeds are found in these regions. Although the Mediterranean region has a big
marketing potential for livestock
Table 8. Forage crop production between 1995-1998*
products, being the centre of
Year
Lucerne
Sainfoin
tourism, it is the least developed
Area
Production (tonnes)
Area
Production (tonnes)
sown Seed Green
sown Seed Green
part of the country in this
Hay
Hay
(ha)
(ha)
regard. This region still has 25%
1995 214 010 953 1 803 190 1 399 341 88 963 2 349 271 909 316 391
of the goats. This is because 1996 229 051 1 962 1 935 087 1 444 466 84 204 2 259 274 715 346 481
the topography of the area is 1997 217 500 1 930 1 905 800 1 364 200 82 500 1 730 205 800 255 300
suitable for goats which are the 1998 230 000 2 260 1 750 000 1 550 000 93 000 1 850 203 150 350 900
best adapted animal for maquis Year
Maize
Vetch
Total area
sown (ha)
vegetation.
Area sown Prod. (‘000
Area
Production
(ha) (‘000)
tonnes)
sown (ha)
(tonnes)
Pastures play a very important
(‘000)
Hay
Green
Hay
role in ruminant feeding. About
1995
515
551
279,2
392 151 352 270
1 097 173
69% of crude protein, 62% of 1996
550
565
268,0
396 278 317 468
1 131 255
starch and 33% of roughage 1997
545
576
260,1
311 384 338 150
1 105 100
needs of the ruminant livestock 1998
550
680
241,0
326 000 342 000
1 114 000
are provided by pasture * Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, WWW 2000
(Genckan et al, 1989). The rest Table 9. Concentrate feed sources of Turkey*
of the feed is obtained from Grains
Production
By-products
Production
(tonnes)
(tonnes)
cultivated forages, concentrates,
4 900 000
Meals
cereal and grain legume straw, Barley
127 000
Sunflower
444 000
agro-industry
by-products Rye
Oats
156 000
Cotton
558 000
and residues. The share of the Wheat
130 000
Soybean
42 000
forage crop production area Hulled wheat
10 000
Total
1 044 000
in total arable lands is about Maize
1 383 000
Bran
1 445 000
3 000
Molasses
518 000
3% (Table 8). Although there Sorghum
Mixed
grain
14 000
Sugar
beet
meal
(wet)
5 825 000
has been a slight increase in
111 000
Fish powder
13 000
recent years this figure is far Vetch
Bitter vetch
7 000
Meat-bone powder
17 000
behind the desired level. Table 9 Others
5 000
summarizes the concentrate feed TOTAL
6 846 000
TOTAL
8 862 000
sources of Turkey.
* Avcioglu et al., 2000.
12
Country Pasture/Forage Resource Profile
Legislative arrangements for improvement of the ruminant sector
The Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs (MARA) issued a Decision (Decision No 2000/467) on
May 10, 2000, to support the ruminant sector in Turkey between 2000-2005. The Decision covers the
following items.
a) Forage crops production projects approved by the MARA: For perennial forage crops up to 30% of
total investment including equipment expenses (fertilizer and transport excluded) will be directly
supported by the Ministry. The support will be up to 20% for annual crops. For the project to be
eligible, the area sown to perennial and annual forages should be between 1–50 ha and 2.5–100 ha
respectively.
b) Purchase of breeding animals: Farmers purchasing certified pure bred dairy cattle, raised by local
holdings or General Directorate of State Farms will be directly supported up to 30% of the total
cost.
c) Artificial insemination: Holdings receiving artificial insemination service will be supported up to
50% of the total artificial insemination costs.
d) Newly established artificial insemination enterprises: Equipment cost of newly established artificial insemination enterprises will be supported up to 50% of the total investment.
5. THE PASTURE RESOURCE
Pastures have been the basic source of forage for thousands of years. At the beginning of twentieth
century when 12 000 000 people were living in Turkey, a relatively small number of animals were
grazed on natural grazing and there was no serious pasture management problem. After the end of the
World War 1, there were 440 000 km2 of natural grazing occupying 58% of the country. At the same
time there were about 20 000 000 livestock units grazing on this vast area. After the second world war
animal numbers remained almost the same, while grazing areas were reduced to 430 000 km2. Since then
there has been a sharp increase in animal numbers and decrease in pasture area. Decrease in the pasture
area has been due to mechanization of agriculture and ploughing of pasture to gain crop land. In 1980
rangeland areas had decreased to 217 000 km2 (Table 10). Stocking rate declined from 2.18 ha/AU in
1935 to 0.75 ha/AU in 1970 (Munzur, 1987). The same trend continued until the present time. Nowadays
the number of animals grazing on Turkey’s pastures is 3-4 times more than their carrying capacity.
Because of long years of over-grazing the pastures have not only lost productivity but also their quality.
The percentage of desirable plants in the botanical composition is 10-20%. Depending on the zone and
grazing pressure, plant cover of
the pastures is between 10-50%. Table 10. Changes in pasture area between 1940 and 2000
Pastures (ha)
Ratio to total area (%)
As a result of the above men- Years
1940
44 217 000
56.8
tioned negative impacts, pastures
1950
37 906 000
48.6
are far from being able to fulfil
1960
28 658 000
36.8
their main functions. Plant cover 1980
21 748 000
27.9
of the pastures in semi arid zones 2000
12 377 600
15.9
(south eastern and central part), (Source: Munzur 1987 and SIS publications)
has reduced dramatically and is
Table 11. Pasture area, DM matter yield and total production by
now unable to hold the soil, caus- geographical regions
ing severe wind and water ero- Regions
Pasture
Ratio to total DM yield
Total DM
area (ha)
(%)
(kg/ha)
production (t)
sion problems. Such areas total
1 556 000
12.5
1 000
1 556 000
5–7 000 000 ha. Pasture areas, Black Sea
4 573 400
37.0
900
4 116 060
dry matter yield and total dry East Anatolia
South East Anatolia
743 600
6.0
450
334 620
matter production by the geo- Mediterranean
434 300
3.5
500
217 150
graphical regions are given in Aegean
615 900
5.0
600
369 540
Table 11.
Marmara
564 100
4.5
600
338 460
3 890 300
31.5
450
1 750 635
Pasture degradation is the Central Anatolia
12 377 600
100.0
Average 700
8 682 465
most important factor reducing TOTAL
Country Pasture/Forage Resource Profile
13
productivity. This is because there are few incentives for individuals to reduce grazing pressure such as
limiting number of animals, grazing period and timely grazing of pastures. Villages rarely plan pasture
management and it is left totally to the shepherds. Pasture can be classified as degraded, degrading and
productive. Degraded pastures are found on the least productive ecological systems and areas close to
villages. They are the least productive resources and cannot be improved and managed economically in
the short term. Degrading pasture applies to the major portion and require very careful improvement and
management techniques. The main attention should be paid to these resources because they constitute
the major pasture areas. Productive pastures are found only on better soils and in more isolated areas
with lower grazing pressure. This source is still capable of supplying sufficient roughage when properly
managed (Fargher, 1993).
The social and economical circumstances of the population are changing rapidly. As a result of
emigration from rural areas to big settlements, the number of people involved in agriculture declined
to 34% in 2000. This is a result of changes in animal composition and more sedentary system causing
shortage of labour force and the decreasing productivity of grazing areas. Young rural people spend up
to ten months per year working in the big cities. Labour requirements are met either by hiring shepherds
or modifying the animal husbandry system to more cost effective strategies needing less man power,
such as dairy cattle. As the number of people declines in the rural areas, the specialist animal producers
are increasing their animal numbers. This is to say that, compared to other agricultural sectors, animal
husbandry is carried out in a more professional way.
The land tenure system is, and has been, one of the major constraints of grassland management.
Common areas are grazed free of charge, therefore they are not managed properly. Boundaries of
pastures are not clearly determined and assigned to village communities. In the absence of tenure, the
users have no incentives to invest in rangeland resources. In accordance with the new Pasture Law,
cadastral work to define the boundaries of pastures is continuing and is expected to have a positive
impact on pasture management and rehabilitation.
Present conditions of natural pasture in various geographical regions of Turkey
• Black Sea Region: The most productive rangelands of Turkey are located here. Annual rainfall
ranges from 600 mm in the west to 2000 mm in the east. The climate is favourable for growth of
pasture plants, but only 12.5% of national pasture area is in this region. The most productive pastures are in the east of the region. Alpine pastures are also in the east. Annual average dry matter
production is 1 000 kg/ha. Another advantage of these pastures over the other regions is that their
productive season is longer. The most productive pastures are in high elevation areas, so herders
move to highlands (Yayla traditional transhumance) in summer and stay there until the end of the
grazing season. This sort of nomadic grazing is typical in the area. Grazing pressure is high, including in forest areas.
• East Anatolian Region: About 37.0% of the pastures of Turkey are here. There are fewer livestock
in this area so pasture condition is better than in the rest of the country. The climate is also very
well suited to pasture growth. The flora is very rich in most of the desired pasture plant species:
Agropyron spp., Festuca ovina, Koelaria cristata, Bromus spp., Poa bulbosa, Medicago spp.,
Onobrychis spp., Trifolium spp., Sanguisorba spp., Artemisia fragrans, Thymus squarrosus, and
Teuchrium spp. are the major plant species. Because of the harsh topographic and climatic conditions in most of the region, Eastern Anatolia is essentially an animal husbandry region. Average
hay production from natural pasture is around 900 kg/ha. Yayla type of grazing is also practiced in
this area.
• South East Anatolian Region: This is one of the most heavily grazed parts of Turkey. The climate
is semi-arid and the pastures dry out very quickly at the end of June. There is some nomadic type
of grazing in the region. Since there is little spring and summer grazing, some of the livestock are
moved to Eastern Anatolian pastures or to high mountain pastures of the South Eastern Taurus
Mountains in the west. About 6% of the pasture area of Turkey is in this region. Average hay yield
of the natural pasture is 450 kg/ha.
• Mediterranean Region: The principal vegetation above 500 m is maquis, with the dominant plant
Quercus coccifera, a small shrub. Although there is some intensive animal husbandry around big
cities, the area is not suited for grazing large ruminants. Only 3.5% of the grazing lands of Turkey
14
Country Pasture/Forage Resource Profile
is located here and about a quarter of the goat population is in this region. Average hay yield of the
pastures is 500 kg/ha. As in South Eastern Anatolia, vegetation at lower elevations dries out very
quickly, so stock owners in some places take their livestock to higher elevations (as in the case of
Black Sea and East Anatolia Regions) for 7-8 months, then return to their settlements at the end of
the grazing period.
• Aegean Region: This is similar to the Mediterranean Region with characteristic Mediterranean maquis
vegetation. About 5.0% of Turkish rangelands are here. Hay yield of the pastures is 600 kg/ha.
• Marmara Region: This is mainly an area of intensive animal husbandry. Only 4.5% of the grazing
area of Turkey is here. Average hay yield of the pastures is about 600 kg/ha. Marmara is the least
important part of the country from the viewpoint of pastures.
• Central Anatolia: The least productive grazing lands are here. Annual rainfall varies between
250–500 mm. Because of hot summers, the pastures dry out very quickly. Grazing pressure is so
high that plant cover can no longer protect the soil. Central Anatolian pastures are steppic. Major
plants are Thymus squarrosus, Festuca ovina, Agropyron cristatum, Poa bulbosa and Artemisia
fragrans. Central Anatolia is a high plateau with few high mountains for the animals to graze in
summer as in the Black Sea, Mediterranean and Eastern regions; the animals generally graze fallows and stubble in summer. About 31.5% of the total grazing area is here. Annual forage yield is
450 kg/ha.
6. OPPORTUNITIES FOR IMPROVEMENT OF PASTURES
RESOURCES
Although Turkey faces several constraints on productivity of grasslands and forage crops, there is a
great potential for developing forage sources. Historically the grasslands have been considered as the
cheapest feed and therefore exploited excessively with no care for their sustainability. It is quite obvious
that current animal numbers are in excess of the carrying capacity of the grasslands. Therefore all
opportunities should be taken to improve the feed resources to reduce the grazing pressure. Researchers
have determined means of improving feed resources including the best grassland rehabilitation and
management activities and forage crop production systems, suitable for the various regions.
6.1 Fertilizing
Fertilizing is one of the most effective inputs to increase agricultural productivity. Although the total
national fertilizer consumption was 10 946 000 tonnes in 1998 (SIS, 2000), the amount used for pasture
improvement is negligible. Several fertilizer experiments were carried out on natural meadow and
pastures, mainly in the central and eastern parts of Turkey. The effect of fertilizers on the yield of natural
pasture and meadows was examined in Central Anatolia by Alinoglu and Mülayim (1976). Encouraging
results were obtained in meadow areas. Green forage yield increase was up to 8 tonnes/ha with N100, P60
and K20. In addition to yield increase, fertilizer had a positive effect on the quality of hay. While hay yield
increased with fertilizer application on natural pasture, the response to fertilizers was not economically
feasible. In another experiment fertilizing natural pasture in the same area was successful together with
a rest treatment (Büyükburc, 1983). Hay yield of the pasture was 3-4 times greater than the control
plots with N100, P100 application together with a complete rest treatment in spring. Eastern Anatolian
pastures responded more strongly to fertilizers. Application of P50 in autumn together with N75 in
spring resulted in over six-fold increase in productivity (Büyükburc et al., 1990). Gökkus and Altin
(1986) state that harrowing the pasture before fertilizer application results in better uptake of nutrients
by the plants. In other experiments, depending on the quality of the pastures, Altin (1975) recommends
N50-100 and P40-80; Manga et al. (1986) N60, P30-60 for the recovery of Eastern Anatolian pastures.
It is also recommended that fertilizer is only effective on pastures in reasonable condition under suitable
management practice. Efficient fertilizer use depends on the quality of the pastures; to get an adequate
response the pasture should be in good condition and grazing pressure should be at the correct level.
Country Pasture/Forage Resource Profile
15
Research results indicate clearly that, in some parts of the country, fertilizer application is quite an
effective way of improving the productivity of the pastures and meadows; however it is still not widely
accepted in the country because of the land ownership regime. Pastures are considered common areas so
the farmers do not invest in fertilizers for this purpose. The government fertilizes pastures on a limited
scale for extension but it has never been taken up by the farmers.
6.2 Rotational grazing
Rotational grazing is a basic principle of pasture management. This is generally ignored by the farmers
because the pastures are the cheapest feed sources. Adequacy or lack of feed as well as lack of legislation
to enable sustainable management of pastures are other points. Another negative factor is that rotational
grazing requires an extra fencing investment depending on the topography of the area. Although the
herdsmen are well aware of the benefits of rotational grazing, they continue to graze all the parts of the
grasslands from early spring until winter. The effect of rotational grazing on the yield and rangeland
vegetation was investigated by several researchers.
Recovery of degraded pastures requires longer than expected. A trial was conducted on a degraded
pasture of Central Anatolia to discover the effect of resting from grazing for various periods up to
eight years in comparison with grazing. Under continuous grazing, the amount of grasses, legumes and
other plants remained unchanged between 48–51%, 10% and 37–40% respectively. The percentage of
grasses decreased to 34%, while legumes and plants belonging to other families reached 14% and 52%
respectively after eight years conservation. Another finding was that the annual plants were replaced by
perennials. In the mean time plant cover, which was originall6y 12% reached 24% at the end of eight
years of protection (Alinoglu, 1971).
6.3 Artificial pasture establishment and reseeding
Artificial pasture establishment is one way of increasing productivity of grazing areas. Several trials
have been conducted to find the seeding rates and best mixtures for different climatic regions. In a study
conducted under Ankara conditions, mixture of intermediate wheatgrass (Agropyron intermedium),
smooth brome (Bromus inermis) and lucerne (Medicago sativa) was recommended as the best mixture.
Tosun et al. (1977) carried out a study in East Anatolia to determine the best artificial pasture establishment
technique. After seven years the best practice was drilling a mixture of lucerne (M. sativa), sainfoin (O.
sativa), smooth brome (B. inermis), intermediate wheat grass (A. intermedium) and sheep’s fescue (F.
ovina) on a perfectly prepared seed bed. Hay yield of artificial pasture was three times more then natural
herbage. While liveweight gain from the natural pasture was 22 kg/ha in one grazing period, it was over
60 kg/ha on artificially established pasture. Overseeding was not successful because seedlings of the sown
forages could not compete with the native herbage. In another experiment reseeding of natural pasture
was successful together with harrowing, burning and fertilization (Gökkus, 1987).
6.4 Fallow reduction and forage production from fallow areas
Reduction of fallow was a major concern of Governments in the past 25 years. Several rural development
and fallow reduction projects, carried out by the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, gave fruitful
results in increasing forage crop and food legume production. One reason for fallowing the land is
the difficulty of soil preparation after the cereal harvest. Cereals are harvested at the end of summer
in the major cereal areas so farmers tend to start soil preparation after the first rains come. Annual
forage legumes have tremendous potential in this regard since they leave the soil free at the beginning
of summer with sufficient moisture for seed bed preparation for the following crop. As a result of
several research and extension projects the area of fallow declined to 4 900 000 ha in 1998 compared
to 8 400 000 ha in 1979. Generally fallow reduction projects had a considerable effect on food legume
production but the share of forage crop areas was below the desirable level. Karagöz et al. (1991) state
that it is possible to obtain over 3 tonnes/ha hay from barley and vetch mixtures in Central Anatolian
fallows without decreasing the cereal yield. Similar results were obtained in the same region by Kurt
and Tan (1984), Tan (1984 a). Annual forage and cereal mixtures sown as the main crop, yielded almost
the same amount of dry matter as the fallow sown mixtures (Tan, 1984 b), this proves that fallows can
be used economically to produce fodder.
16
Country Pasture/Forage Resource Profile
6.5 Establishment of temporary or seasonal grazing areas
Arable areas provide an excellent source of temporary or seasonal grazing but fallows are more practical
for this purpose. While the distance of the field from the farm is an important factor for establishing
temporary pasture, it was proved in some experiments that it is a feasible way of forage crop production
(Munzur et al., 1991). The best mixture for a seasonal pasture was 40% cereal and 60% vetch (Munzur,
1978). Karabulut et al. (1989) state that it is possible to obtain a liveweight gain of up to 10.5 and 9.5 kg
with lambs and ewes, on a spring sown legume cereal mixture on fallows in Central Anatolia.
6.6 Forage legumes
Lucerne, Medicago sativa, has long been grown Turkey. Being one of the gene centres of the crop, it is
found naturally in almost all regions, particularly in eastern and central Anatolia. There are lucerne fields
up to 50 years old in the east. The variety “Kayseri” is the oldest registered and most widely used one.
It gives 3-4 cuts under irrigated conditions. Introduced coastal types give up to 12 cuts per year on the
Mediterranean and Aegean coasts, but these are mainly cotton areas and lucerne cultivation is almost
negligible here. Average hay yield of lucerne is about 7 tonnes/ha in Turkey. Traditionally, it is the major
fodder crop of the irrigated areas. It is generally grown as the main feed source for the most valuable
animals. Lucerne is also cultivated under rainfed conditions at the eastern part of the country, but yields
are very low so its area is very limited.
6.7 Fodder conservation
Lucerne is replaced by sainfoin, Onobrychis viciifolia, under rainfed conditions where it is more
productive than alfalfa and seed production is much easier. Sainfoin is very palatable, less exacting in
terms of seedbed preparation and it does not cause bloat of ruminants when grazed or fed green. Despite
the several advantages over lucerne under dryland conditions, it has a serious drawback in that sainfoin
loses its productivity in a short time due to damage caused by several insects. The main three insects
involved are Bembecia scopigera, Dipsosphecia ichneumoniformis and Sphenoptera carceli (Tamer
and Özer, 1990). The insects nest in the upper part of the root system and cause significant decrease in
yield in the second and third years after establishment. Most of the plants die in the fourth year greatly
reducing the hay yield so sainfoin is considered a three year crop in Turkey. Research and breeding
studies have not succeeded in solving this problem. In spite of this disadvantage, the farmers are satisfied
with the yield of the plant and sainfoin acreage remains almost stable. It gives one (rarely two) cuts per
year. Average hay yield of sainfoin is about 3.8 tonnes/ha.
The main hay sources in Turkey are sown forage and meadows. Cereal and food legume straw are
also widely used hay sources for winter feeding. About 644 000 ha of meadows are harvested for hay.
Unlike the pastures, meadows are owned by individuals. They are cut once a year. Annual yield of the
meadows ranges between 2.5-3.5 tonnes/ha. Average yield is 2.8 tonnes/ha and total hay harvested from
meadows is 1.9 M tonnes/yr. Meadows are traditionally mown by scythe. They are raked after drying and
stored in different manners: generally hay is stored in barns as stacks; in eastern Anatolia another method
of storage is rotating the hay bundles into ropes of almost equal size and weight. It is now becoming
common to use machinery for mowing and baling. Sown fodders are mown by scythe in smallholdings
and hay is carried to the barns to be stored in stacks. Vetch is generally grown for seed production. The
crop is generally harvested by sickle before it is fully dry, and piled up on the field. After drying the
piles are threshed by tractor- operated threshers. Although much of the leaf is lost during threshing,
vetch straw provides a valuable feed for winter. Large enterprises and state farms are fully equipped with
seeders, mowers and balers.
Silage making is not very common in Turkey. Although ways and means of making silage from
different forage crops [including several mixtures of them, as well as agricultural by-products such as
sugar beet pulp, rose hip pulp, fruit juice by products and so on] have been tested and successful results
obtained and extensive demonstration activities have been performed by extension specialists, silage
making has not been a commonly accepted farmer practice. It is restricted to big private and government
enterprises and a few farmers.
Country Pasture/Forage Resource Profile
17
Legislative arrangements
The Pasture Law (Law No: 4342)
The condition of pastures has been a concern of the government. The Great Assembly of Turkey enacted
The Pasture Law (Law No: 4342) in 1998. This Law brings a series of new regulations to major issues
of pastures such as: ownership regime, rights of use, control mechanism for management systems and
so on. Objectives of the Law are as follows (Büyükburc and Arkac, 2000):
a. assignment of grazing areas to villages or municipalities after defining their boundaries
b. enabling suitable management and use of these areas according to determined rules and procedures,
c. development of their productivity through applying improvement programmes
d. development of a system of supervision of utilization for better protection of the pastures.
Principles and activities anticipated by The Pasture Law
The new law removes the gaps in the previous regulations on use of natural grazing by giving shared
responsibilities and power to Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs and to the users. Pasture
Commissions and Technical Committees were set up at Provincial Agricultural Directorates to supervise
pasture management and improvement. Likewise, village communities or pasture management
commissions are planned to be established at the villages. Another important innovation with the Law
is that a Pasture Fund has been set up to provide a source of finance for management and improvement
of grazing land. The Law provides new regulations for the renting of grazing land. It aims to improve
the grazing areas to raise productivity and pasture research units were set up at research institutes to that
end. Nomadic grazing was given due attention by regulating the movement and grazing rights of herders.
The Law recognizes the importance of Non Governmental Organizations and their role in conservation
of natural resources. Therefore collaboration with NGO’s is foreseen.
7. RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT ORGANIZATIONS AND
PERSONNEL
General Directorate of Agricultural Production and Development. Ministry of Agriculture and Rural
Affairs. The General Directorate has a mandate on use, management of natural grazing; execution of
pasture rehabilitation projects. It has several production stations. Contact person: Dr. Ahmet Bülbül,
Director General. Milli Müdafa Cad. 20/9, Kizilay, Ankara. Tel: + 90 312 4252275, Fax: + 90 312
4252016.
General Directorate of Agricultural Research. Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs. Responsible
for fodder crops and pasture research. Has the mandate over the research institutes distributed all over
Turkey. Contact person: Dr. Selahattin Mermer, Director General. Bagdat St. No:208, PO Box:78,
Y.Mahalle, Ankara. Tel: + 90 312 3441380; Fax: + 90 312 3153448
General Directorate of Support and Organizations. Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs.
Agricultural extension agent of The Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs. Directs the Provincial
Agricultural Directorates. Contact Person: M. Akif Paksoy, Director General. Cinnah St. No:16, Tel:
+ 312 4668286; Fax: + 90 312 4278619.
Central Research Institute for Field Crops. Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs (Previously Grassland
and Animal Husbandry Research Institute). Carries out forage crops, animal husbandry, pasture management
and improvement research. Contact person: Dr. Hüseyin Tosun, Director. PO Box: 226, 06042, Ankara, Tel:
+ 90 312 2878957; Fax: + 90 312 2878958.
East Anatolian Agricultural Research Institute. Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs. Carries out
forage crops, animal husbandry, pasture management and improvement research. Contact person: Dr.
18
Country Pasture/Forage Resource Profile
Lütfü Tahtacioglu, Director. Gez Köy Civari, Ilica Yolu Üzeri, Erzurum. Tel: + 90 442 3271276; Fax:
+ 90 442 3271364.
Aegean Agricultural Research Institute. Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs. Carries out forage
crop, animal husbandry, pasture management and improvement research. Contact person: Dr. Ahmet
Ertug Firat, Director. PO Box: 9, 35661, Menemen, Izmir. Tel: + 90 232 8461009; Fax: + 90 232 8461107.
General Directorate of Forests. Department of Afforestation and Sylviculture. Ministry of Forestry.
Responsible body for grazing areas in forest zones. Contact Person: Mr. Erdogan Özer, Director General.
Orman G. M. Tesisleri, No:11, Gazi, Ankara. Tel: + 90 312 2125600;Fax: + 90 312 2125505.
General Directorate of Environmental Protection. Ministry of Environment. Contact Person: Ms. Serap Kuleli,
Director General. Eskisehir Yolu, 8. km. 06530, Ankara. Tel: + 90 312 2854994, Fax: + 90 312 2862271.
Turkish Foundation for Erosion Struggle and Afforestation. NGO, mainly focused on erosion control
and afforestation. Carries out pasture rehabilitation projects. PO Box: 213, Levent, Istanbul. Tel: + 90
212 2811027; Fax: + 90 212 2811132.
8. REFERENCES
Akman, N., K. Özkütük, S. Kumlu and S. M. Yener. 2000. Cattle Raising in Turkey and its Future. In: Vth
Technical Congress of the Agriculture, 17-21 Jan., 2000. P:741-764. Chamber of Agricultural Engineers.
Alinoglu, N. 1971. Investigation on the effect of grazing and complete rest treatments on pasture vegetation.
Grassland and Animal Husbandry Research Institute Pub. No: 4. Ankara.
Alinoglu, N., M. Mülayim. 1976. Investigation on effects of some fertilizers on green forage yields of natural pasture
and meadow in Ankara conditions. Grassland and Animal Husbandry Research Institute Pub. No: 54. Ankara.
Altin, M. 1975. Effect of N, P and K fertilizers on hay, crude protein yield, crude ash ratio and botanical
composition of natural pasture and meadows under Erzurum conditions. Atatürk Univ. Pub. No: 159,
research Series No: 95. Erzurum.
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the Agriculture, 17-21 Jan., 2000. P:566-585. Chamber of Agricultural Engineers.
Büyükburc, U. 1983. Investigation on the effects of fertilizers and rest treatments on the pasture of Yavrucak
Village. Grassland and Animal Husbandry Research Institute Pub. No: 79. Ankara.
Büyükburc, U., S. Sengül and L. Tahtacioglu. 1990. Improvement possibilities of natural pastures of Erzurum
Province. In: Serin, Y. and A. Gökkus. Results of pasture and forage crops researched carried out at Eastern
Anatolia. P:8. 2 Atatürk University Agricultural Faculty Press. Erzurum.
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Davis, P. H. Ed. 1965–1988. Flora of Turkey and East Aegean Islands. V.1- 10. Edinburgh University Press.
Edinburgh
FAO Production Yearbook, 1998. V 52. ISBN 92-5-004288-4.
FAO Trade Yearbook, 1997. V 51. ISBN 92-5-004195-0.
FAO webpage 2006 < http://faostat.fao.org/ >
Fargher, J. D. 1993. Turkish Livestock Strategy Study. Rangeland and meadow resources, major constraints
and options for improvement. Workshop on the Development of the Livestock Subsector in Turkey.
Ankara, June 1993. (Draft Summary)
Genckan, M.S., R. Avcioglu, H. Soya and O. Dogan. 1989. Problems concerning pasture utilization,
conservation and development in Turkey and their solutions. In 3rd Technical Congress of Turkish
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19
General Directorate of Soil and Water. 1978. Soil resources of Turkey. General Directorate of Soil and Water. Ankara.
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amelioration practices applied pastures. DOGA TU. Agric. For. Journal. 11(2):348-361.
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yield and botanical composition. DOGA TU. Agric. For. Journal. 10(3):333-342.
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mixtures sown on fallow areas. Central Research Institute for Field Crops. Pub. No:1989/6. Ankara.
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on fallow areas. 2. Grassland-Meadow and Forage Crops Congress. 28-31 May 1991. P:430-438. Aegean
University. Izmir.
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Turkey. Ministry of Environment. Ankara.
Kaymakci, M., A. Elicin, E. Tuncel, E. Pekel, O. Karaca, F. Isin, T. Taskin, Y. Askin, H. Emsen, Özder,
E. Selcuk and R. Sönmez. 2000. Small Ruminant Raising in Turkey. In: Vth Technical Congress of the
Agriculture, 17-21 Jan., 2000. P:765-793. Chamber of Agricultural Engineers.
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yield, vegetation and some soil properties of Erzurum natural pastures. DOGA TU. Agric. For. Journal.
10(2):235-244.
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Water. Ankara.
Munzur, M. 1978. Experiments on the optimum seed rates of some vetch-cereal mixtures, suitability to
grazing and herbage yield in Ankara. Grassland and Animal Husbandry Research Institute Research
Activities. Grassland and Animal Husbandry Research Institute Pub. No: 97, P:29-31. Ankara.
Munzur, M. 1987. Fodder Development, Rangeland Rehabilitation and Management. Grassland and Animal
Husbandry Research Institute. Ankara, Turkey.
Munzur, M., A. Tan and A. Karagöz. 1991. Possibilities of grazing annual legume and cereal mixtures sown
on fallow areas. 2. Grassland-Meadow and Forage Crops Congress. 28-31 May 1991. P:172-180. Aegean
University. Izmir.
Muthoo, M and T. Onul. 1996. Agriculture in Turkey. FAO. ISBN 975-8153-00-5
Official Newspaper No 24045. 10 May 2000. Ministerial Committee Decision. Decision on Support of
Animal Husbandry. (Decision No: 2000/467).
Official Newspaper No 23272. 28 February 1998. Pasture Law. Law No: 4342.
Official Newspaper No 24067. 2 June 2000. Announcement on the Implementation Principles for Decision on
Support of Animal Husbandry, Decision No: 2000/467. (Announcement No: 2000/22).
State Institute of Statistics. 1994. General Agricultural Census, 1991. Results of the Agricultural Holdings
(Households) Survey.
State Institute of Statistics. 1997. Agricultural Structure. Production, Price, Value..
State Institute of Statistics. 1999. The Summary of Agricultural Statistics.
State Institute of Statistics. 2000. Statistical Yearbook of Turkey, 1999.
State Institute of Statistics. 2002a. The summary of Agricultural Statistics 1982-2001.
State Institute of Statistics. 2002b. Statistical Yearbook of Turkey,2001
Tamer, A. and M. Özer. 1990. Investigations on the bio-ecology and control of Bembecia scopigera (Scopoli)
(Lepidoptea:Sesiidae) that damages sainfoin in Ankara Province. Doga, Turkish Journal of Agriculture and
Forestry. 14(1990), 149-180. Ankara.
Tan, A. 1984 a. Hay yield of some annual legume-barley mixtures sown at spring and fall during the fallow
year in Corum Province. Grassland and Animal Husbandry Research Institute Pub. No: 91. Ankara.
Tan. A. 1984 b. Hay yield of some annual legume-oats mixtures in Ankara dry land conditions. Grassland and
Animal Husbandry Research Institute Pub. No: 90. Ankara (In Turkish).
Tosun, F., I. Manga, M. Altin and Y. Serin. 1977. A study on the improvement of dry land ranges developed
under the conditions of Erzurum (East Anatolia). XIII. International Grassland Congress, Leipzig, GDR,
18-27 May, 1977, 607-610.
20
Country Pasture/Forage Resource Profile
Useful websites
Website of Central Research Institute for Field Crops is under preparation.
Agricultural Economic Research Institute
http://www.aeri.org.tr
General Directorate of Agricultural Research
http://www.tagem.gov.tr
General Directorate of Forestry
http://www.ogm.gov.tr
GIS and Remote Sensing Center of the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs.
http://www.gis.tagem.gov.tr
Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, WWW. 2000.
http://www.tarim.gov.tr
National Library
http://www.mkutup.gov.tr
State Institute for Statistics
http://www.die.gov.tr
The Scientific and Technical Research Council of Turkey
http://www.tubitak.gov.tr
9. CONTACTS
For further information on grasslands and forages in Turkey contact:
Dr. Alptekin Karagöz
Central Research Institute for Field Crops
Ankara, Turkey
PO Box:226, 06042,
E-mail: [email protected]
This profile was written in March 2001 by Dr. Alptekin Karagöz who
provided an update in January 2003.
[Editing was undertaken by J.M Suttie and S.G. Reynolds and livestock data were modified by S.G.
Reynolds in October 2006.]