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Metodi Sperimentali della Fisica Moderna P-N junctions Short review of semiconductor properties P-n junctions References S.M. Sze, Physics of semiconductor devices (Wiley) Chap 1,2 Ashcroft-Mermin, Solid State Physics (Saunders) Chap 4-5, 28-29 Grosso- Parravicini, Solid State Physics Chap 13-14 Crystal lattice Bravais lattice = set of all points such that R = n1a1 + n2a2 + n3a3 a1 , a2 , a3 = primitive vectors n1 , n2 , n3 = integers Simple cubic (SC) a1 = (-x+y+z)a/2 a2 = (x-y+z)a/2 a3 = (x+y-z)a/2 Body centered cubic (BCC) Face centered cubic (FCC) a1 = (y+z)a/2 a2 = (x+z)a/2 a3 = (x+y)a/2 Crystal lattice a1 ; a2 ; a3 = primitive vectors are not unique Primitive unit cell = volume of space that can fill up all the available space with no overlapping (not unique) Crystal lattice with basis The crystal can be described by different primitive vectors, adding also the atoms within the unit cell using a basis Diamond lattice Primitive vectors ^ ax ^ ay ^ az Basis 0 a ^ ^ x y 4 ^ z Lattice with two point basis Directions and planes [n1, n2, n3] = crystal direction (n1, n2, n3) = crystal plane [1 1 0] [0 1 0] Miller indexes [1 1 1] Reciprocal lattice Plane wave e i kr Bravais lattice R = n1a1 + n2a2 + n3a3 The set of K yelding plane waves with the periodicity of a Bravais lattice is the reciprocal lattice e i K( r R) e i Kr e i KR 1 The vectors defining the reciprocal lattice are b1 2 a2 a3 , a1 a2 a3 b2 2 a3 a1 a1 a2 , b3 2 a1 a2 a3 a1 a2 a3 bi aj 2ij If k is a linear combination k k1b1 k2b2 k3b3 k R 2 k1n1 k2n2 k3n3 To be a k of the reciprocal space the ki must be integers Reciprocal lattice Brillouin zone: region of points closer to a lattice point than to any other lattice point in the reciprocal space. The main symmetry directions are labelled , K, X, W, L L X W bcc fcc What is the physical meaning of k? Periodic potential U(r) Crystal momentum p k Free electron K Fermi level Consider N non-interacting electrons confined in a volume V = L3 Non interacting 1 e- Schroedinger equation The ground state is obtained from the single e- levels in V and filling them up with the N electrons 2 2 (r) (r) 2m = Energy of the level Represent the electron confinement to V with a boundary condition (x+L, y, z) = (x, y, z) (x, y +L, z) = (x, y, z) (x, y, z +L) = (x, y, z) This leads to running waves, while choosing as boundary condition for to vanish at the surface would give rise to standing waves…… STANDING WAVES a) Neglect the boundary condition With energies (r) ke i k r i r 1 k (r)dr V 2k 2 (k ) 2m P The one-electron level k(r) is an eigenstate of the momentum operator P (r ) p (r) 1 i k r e V k (r ) The solution of the Schroedinger equation is Normalization condition i r i with eigenvalue that is the electron momentum But k is also a wave vector of the plane wave corresponding to the wavelength 2 k p k b) Consider the boundary condition The bc are satisfied by the plane wave only if k (r ) 1 i k( r L ) e V e i kx L e i ky L e i kxz L 1 ez = 1 only for z = 2m wavevector components 2 2 2 kx mx ; ky my ; kz mz L L L mx ; my ; mz integers The allowed wavevectors in the k space are those with components made by integer multiples of 2/L the area per point is (2/L)2 Fermi wavevector How many allowed k are contained in a region of K space large compared to 2/L? area per point (2/L)2 V 3 2 / L 8 3 Volume occupied by one point The k space density of levels is V 8 3 build the N-electron (non interacting) ground state by filling up the one-electron levels 2k 2 (k ) 2m Each level can contain 2 electrons (one for each spin) 4kF3 3 For N large, we get a sphere the sphere radius is defined kF Number of allowed k within the sphere volume 4kF3 V kF3 3 8 3 6 2 V kF3 kF3 N 2 2V V 6 3 2 For N non interacting e- in a volume V The ground state is formed by occupying all single-particle levels Occupied for k < kF Unoccupied for k < kF kF3 N n V 3 2 FERMI WAVE VECTOR Electronic structure of a solid We start by assuming the positions of atoms R The Hamiltonian describing the electronic structure is N pi2 Ze 2 1 N e2 H 2 i , j 1 ri rj i 1 2m R i 1 ri R N Electron Kinetic energy Electron-ion interaction Electron-electron interaction many-body problem Impossible to calculate solutions Hartree-Fock is not good for solids, it dumps the many body problem in the correction term 1-D band theory: Tight-binding model Semiconductors Potential V atomic V between Atomic planes V along the ion line N VL (r) Va (r n a) n 1 2 Va (r) E a (r) (r) 0 Atomic Schroedinger equation (r) is the eigenstate of the isolated atom The lattice potential is constructed from a superposition of N free atoms potentials Va(r) arranged on a chain with lattice constant a (but it is not the true lattice potential) The Schroedinger equation for the crystal is 2 Va (r ) VL (r ) Va (r ) (r ) E (r ) The solution can be constructed using a linear combination of the type (r) N cn(r n a) n 1 (r) are Wannier functions, similar to the solutions of the atomic Schroedinger equations cn : coefficient to be found Insert the solution into the Schroedinger equation matrix l VL Va m l ,m l ,m 1 l ,m Only the on-site and first neighbor coefficients are retained thus defining the matrix elements , Recalling that the must be of the type eikr Eigenvector of two generic sites Reducing the matrix elements allows to obtain the expansion coefficients cn Hence the eigen energy corresponding to a solution of the Schroedinger equation is E E (, ,K ) Energy band Wavevector along the Brillouin directions It is important how much the (r) overlaps between neighboring sites. The bandwidth depends on the overlap. The potential breaks the degeneracy Dispersion relation for energy bands The potential is also affecting the bands at the high symmetry points of the brillouin zone giving rise to prohibited energies, i.e. energy gaps Energy bands for electrons Ge Si T dependence of energy gap GaAs Fermi level in metals The ground state of N electrons in a solid is made similarly to the free electron case The electron levels are identified by quantum numbers n and k, and the structure of the solid gives rise to the electronic bands When all levels are filled with electrons, in a metal the last band is only partially filled Fermi level is the energy below which the one-electron levels are occupied and above which are unoccupied Semiconductors CB VB The semiconductors are characterized by a gap between the last occupied band, defined as VALENCE BAND and the first unoccupied band, defined as CONDUCTION BAND Hence the definition of Fermi level as "the energy below which the one-electron levels are occupied and above which are unoccupied" is valid for all energies in the gap. EF is not univocally determined One has to define a number telling the energy position of the electrons with the lowest binding energy At T 0 there is a finite probability that some electrons will be thermally excited across the gap, and there will be conduction of ELECTRONS and HOLES Nexc . el. e EG 2KBT will see that GaAs: EG = 1.4 eV at T = 300 K, KBT 0.025 eV and N 7 1013 InSb: EG = 0.16 eV at T = 300 K, KBT 0.025 eV and N 4 1016 Semiconductors Thermally excited electrons will be mostly close to CBM and holes close to VBM so the band dispersion can be approximated by a parabolic relation 2 (k) C k M 1 k 2 2 (k) V k M 1 k 2 0.28m 0.044m The tensor M can be diagonalized so 0.49m 0.16m k12 k32 k22 (k ) C 2m1 2m2 2m3 2 k32 k22 2 k1 (k ) V 2m1 2m2 2m3 2 Si Ge Effective masses Constant energy surfaces for e- Constant energy surfaces for h Carrier concentration in Semiconductors To understand the equivalent of Fermi level in semiconductors, we have to evaluate the number of carriers in thermal equilibrium electrons holes nC (T ) pV (T ) d g C C V g() = DOS 1 ( ) e K BT 1 1 d gV ( ) 1 pV (T ) dgV ( ) 1 e KBT 1 V 1 d g ( ) V V e KBT 1 e KBT 1 The carrier density depends on the chemical potential Suppose C KBT V KBT 1 e K BT e KBT 1 1 e KBT 1 e K BT nC (T ) e pV (T ) e C KBT d g C V KBT V C ( )e d gV ( )e C KBT V KBT Since only the carriers within KBT of the band edges contribute, the effective mass approximation is good and the DOS g() is gC ,V ( ) nC (T ) e pV (T ) e (mC)3, (mV C 1 2mc K BT 4 2 V 1 2mv K BT 4 2 )3 K BT K BT effective masses 2 C ,V 3 3/2 e 3/2 e C V K BT K BT 2 mC3,V/ 2 NC (T ) PV (T ) NC, PV Effective density of states integrated over all energies n (T ) NC (T )e p (T ) PV (T )e C K BT V Carrier density K BT Therefore it is the chemical potential that sets the density of carriers n,p and also the energy position of the states within the gap. This is usually referred to Fermi level in semiconductors but it is NOT a Fermi level Carrier density n (T ) NC (T )e p (T ) PV (T )e 1 2mc K BT NC (T ) 4 2 1 2m K T PV (T ) v 2B 4 m NC (T ) 2.5 c m C V K BT 3/2 3/2 3/2 T 300K 3/2 x 1019cm 3 NC, PV effective DOS for carriers K BT Intrinsic semiconductors At finite temperature thermal excitation of e- leaves an equal number of holes in the VB so that n = p = ni intrinsic carrier density nC (T ) pV (T ) n (T ) p (T ) e NC (T )PV (T )e V C K BT C K BT NC (T )e NC (T )PV (T )e n (T ) p (T ) ni2 (T ) NC (T )PV (T )e Mass action law ni (T ) NC (T )PV (T )e Eg 2KBT V K BT PV (T ) Eg K BT Eg K BT depends only on the gap energy Intrinsic semiconductors nC (T ) pV (T ) ni (T ) What is the chemical potential for the intrinsic case i? ni nc NC e ni pV PV e NC (T )e P ln V NC C i KBT C i K BT i V K BT PV (T )e i V KBT C i PV e KBT i V e NC e KBT C i KBT i V KBT e C 2 i V KBT E g V 2i V E g 2V 2i C 2i V KBT KBT KBT i V Eg 2 KBT PV ln 2 NC Eg 3KBT mV i EF V ln 2 4 mC Intrinsic semiconductors i EF V Eg 2 3KBT mV ln 4 mC So for T 0, the chemical potential i, is in the middle of the energy gap Since (mV/mC) 1, the chemical potential i does not change more than ~ KBT C KBT V KBT Are valid Intrinsic semiconductors 3/ 4 3/ 4 m ni (T ) 2.5 C m mV m 3/ 2 T 300 K e EG 2KBT x 1019cm 3 Considering (mV/m) (mC/m) 1, at RT ni (T ) 2.5 e Silicon: EG= 1.1 eV GaAs: EG= 1.1 eV InSb: EG= 0.17 eV e EG 2KBT e x 1019cm 3 EG 2KBT EG 2KBT e 2.8x 10 ni (T ) 7x 1010cm 3 10 6.9x 10 13 EG 2KBT 0.99 ni (T ) 1.7x 10 7 cm 3 ni (T ) 2.4x 1019cm 3 But mC and mV are 0.01 ni (T ) 2.1x 1016cm 3 Donors and acceptors nC (T ) pV (T ) ni (T ) P: 5 valence eSi: 4 valence e- B: 3 valence e- n-type: a Si atom is replaced by P atom with an extra e-. The P atom is called donor p-type: a Si atom is replaced by B atom with an extra hole. The B atom is called acceptor Donors and acceptors introduce extra energy levels, whose energy can be estimated using the H atom model Donors and acceptors Why hydrogen model? 1) 2) Neglect the ion core of the inserted P atom The P is represented by a Si atom with 1 hole (e+) fixed in the site + 1 eIsolated atom Atom inside crystal Charge field reduced by the dielectric constant (13 for Si) e- binding energy = 10.486 eV (P ionization potential) The e- moving in the lattice has energies of the type E=E(k) (k =crystal wavevector) The allowed energy levels has to be close to conduction band minimum parabolic bands with effective masses The electron of the donor impurity is represented as a particle of charge –e and and mass m* moving in the presence of attractive charge e/ H atom 2 me 4 a0 ;E 0 2 2 me e 2 e2 m m * r0 E m a0 m* m* 1 E0 2 m Extrinsic semiconductors The density of donors or acceptors is above 1012/cm3 The level energies are very small compared to the energy gap so it is very easy to excite an electron from a donor level or a hole from an acceptor level Fermi level for intrinsic semiconductors band diagram density of states i EF V Eg 2 Fermi-Dirac F(E) KBT PV ln 2 NC carrier concentrations n NC e p PV e np ni2 C K BT V K BT Fermi level for extrinsic semiconductors Introduce impurities not all dopants are necessarily ionized: depends on the impurity energy level and T DONOR ND (cm-3) = donor concentration D = energy of donor level Probability of occupation of donor levels Probability of finding ionized donor levels 1 P (ED ) 1 1 e g g = ground state degeneracy = 2 The donor level are localized hence cannot accommodate 2 electrons due to charge repulsion D E F K BT 1 P (ED ) 1 N N Density of ionized donors D D 1 D E F 1 1 e KBT g N D ND 1 ge E F D K BT Fermi level for extrinsic semiconductors ACCEPTOR Introduce impurities not all dopants are necessarily ionized: depends on the impurity energy level and T NA (cm-3) = acceptor concentration A = energy of acceptor level Probability of occupation of acceptor levels Probability of finding ionized acceptor levels Density of ionized acceptor P (E A ) 1 1 1 e g g = ground state degeneracy = 4 each acceptor impurity level can accept one hole of either spin The impurity level is doubly degenerate at K =0 A E F K BT 1 P (EA ) 1 NA ND 1 A E F 1 1 e KBT g NA NA 1 ge A E F KBT Fermi level for extrinsic semiconductors With impurity atoms introduced preserve charge neutrality Total negative charges (electrons and ionized acceptors) extrinsic NA n Total positive charges (holes and ionized donors) intrinsic ND p extrinsic intrinsic NA n ND p np ni2 Add DONORS only n N p N D D NC e EC E F KBT ND 1 1 2e D EF KBT Mass action law still valid Fermi level for extrinsic semiconductors DONORS NC e EC E F KBT ND 1 1 2e D EF KBT Graphically solved to determine EF Plot for two different values of D Fermi level for extrinsic semiconductors DONORS band diagram n-type semiconductor density of states Fermi-Dirac F(E) carrier concentrations Fermi level for extrinsic semiconductors ACCEPTORS band diagram p-type semiconductor density of states Fermi-Dirac F(E) carrier concentrations NV e EV E F K BT For a set of dopant concentrations it is possible to estimate the Fermi level NA 1 1 2e A E F K BT NC e EC E F KBT ND 1 1 2e D EF KBT Carrier concentration temperature dependence n ND p Charge neutrality D = energy level of the donor impurity TDKB = D ionization impurity temperature 1) T<< TD = D/KB freezing out region D < EF < EC NC e EF EC E F KBT 1 ND e 2 D EC 2 D E F KBT KBT ND ln 2 2NC Carrier density in the conduction band NC ND 2KDBT n (T ) e 2 NC e EC E F KBT ND 1 1 2e D E F KBT NV e E F EV KBT Carrier concentration temperature dependence 2) TD < T < EG/KB NC e saturation region EC E F KBT ED < EF < EC ND 1 1 1 e 2 EF D KBT NV e At RT almost all electron (donors) and holes (acceptors ) are excited = saturation condition Intrinsic electrons negligible n (T ) NC e Minority carriers p(T) ni2 (T ) ni2 (T ) p (T ) n (T ) ND Intrinsic Silicon N-type Silicon ni (T ) 1010cm 3 ND 1x 1014cm 3 p (T ) 1x 10 6cm 3 3) TD < EG/KB < T intrinsic region EC EF KBT ND Majority carriers EV E F KBT Mobility Why? We need to know what is happening to carriers for concentrations out of equilibrium - Carrier transport for a semiconductor in the presence of an electric field E - 2 parabolic bands (valence and conduction) and effective masses mv and mc vdrift E Current density = scattering time n = carrier density n e n mc ne 2 n Jn neE mc p Jp For e- and holes mobility e p mv ne 2 p mv neE e ( n n p p ) depends on carrier interaction within the lattice and on temperature Diffusion coefficient Consider a concentration gradient in the solid Suppose the flux goes from regions of high concentration to regions of low concentration with a magnitude that is proportional to the concentration gradient Jn eDn n Dn is the diffusion coefficient For a doped semiconductor with a carrier concentration gradient and applied electric field the total current density is Jn nen E eDn n Drift Diffusion Mobility-diffusion coefficient relation The mobility p, and the diffusion coefficient D, are not independent n Jn nen eDn 0 x n nen eDn x Consider an n-type semiconductor with nonuniform (n=n(x)) doping concentration and without an external applied field Drift current balances the diffusion current the nonuniform doping generates a potential (x) that rigidly shifts the energy levels of the semiconductor EC (x ) EC ( e ) (x ) internal electric field n NC (T )e EC EF KBT n (x ) n 1 EC e n (x ) n (x ) x KBT x KBT nen eDn e n KBT Dn n kBT e EC (x ) ex The p-n junction p-type semiconductor 1 ND ND 1 D E F 1 1 e KBT g n-type semiconductor NA NA 1 ge A E F KBT All donors and acceptors ionized (saturation condition) ND ND NA NA ND,A (cm-3) = donor,acceptor concentration The p-n junction Bring together the two regions p-type semiconductor n-type semiconductor 1) 2) Some e- move from n-type to p and recombine with h Some h move from p-type to n and recombine with e- 3) 4) In the n region close to x=0 remains non neutralized donors (+) In the p region close to x=0 remains non neutralized acceptors (-) A region depleted of majority carriers is formed at the interface (space charge region) A strong electric field is built up opposing further diffusion of majority carriers, reaching equilibrium At equilibrium and no external field E applied , no current flows so n Jn nen eDn 0 x kT n en 0 e x Dn n kBT e n NC (T )e C E F KBT E n n F x x EF enn 0 x The Fermi level must remain constant throughout the depletion layer and the sample This means that the band in the two regions bend to adjust across the p-n junction eb How much is the potential? Depends on carrier concentration eb EFn EFp Contact potential n (T ) ND NC (T )e p (T ) NA PV (T )e EC E F K BT E F EV K BT E C E Fn K BT E Fp EV K BT ND NC E Fn EC K BT ln N ln A PV E Fp EV K BT ln ln N P eb EFn EFp EC EV KBT ln D ln V NA NC eb EG KBT ln NDNA NC PV ND NC PV NA At equilibrium, free carrier concentrations (e- and holes) depends on the position across the junction For electrons n x NC T e EC x E F KBT EC (x ) EC ( e ) (x ) Free electron density is high when Fermi level is close to bottom of CB n (x ) NC T e NC T e n (x1 ) n (x2 )e EC E F K BT e EC ( x ) E F K BT e ( x ) K BT e ( x1 ) ( x 2 ) KBT NC T e NDe e ( x ) K BT EC e ( x ) E F K BT At equilibrium, free carrier concentrations (e- and holes) depends on the position across the junction p (x ) NV e E F EV ( x ) KBT p (x ) PV T e Free hole density is high when Fermi level is close to top of VB EC ( x ) E F KBT NAe e ( x ) KBT p (x1 ) p (x2 )e e ( x1 ) ( x2 ) KBT Carrier concentrations np 0 nn 0 pp 0 pn 0 x1 p (x1 ) p (x2 )e e ( x1 ) ( x2 ) KBT x2 n (x1 ) n (x2 )e x1 inside p p (x1 ) pp 0 Equilibrium concentration of holes in neutral bulk p material x2 inside n p (x1 ) pn 0 Equilibrium concentration of holes in neutral bulk n material pp 0 pn 0e eb K BT e ( x1 ) ( x 2 ) KBT x1 inside p n (x1 ) np 0 Equilibrium concentration of e- in neutral bulk p material x2 inside n n (x1 ) nn 0 Equilibrium concentration of e- in neutral bulk n material n p 0 nn 0e eb K BT Space-charge region and internal electric field Approaching the depletion region the number of holes decreases and the layer depleted of holes is created. The fixed charge density is p NA n ND dn dp Approaching the depletion region the number of edecreases and the layer depleted of e- is created. The fixed charge density is eND eNA Depletion layer approximation eNA eND -dp x 0 0 x dn The electrostatic potential follows the Poisson equation d 2 (x ) dx 2 r 0 p NA n ND Integrate the Poisson equation Boundary conditions: Boundary conditions: Homogeneous semiconductor at equilibrium, no diffusion and Jd = 0 E=0 Homogeneous semiconductor at equilibrium, no diffusion and Jd = 0 E=0 '( d p ) 0 ( d p ) 0 E '(dn ) 0 (dn ) b Choose the Constant = 0 eNA d (x d p ) dx r 0 E Integrate the Poisson equation –dp < x < 0 eNA (x ) x dp 2 0 r 2 eND d (x dn ) dx r 0 0 < x < dp (x ) b eND x dn 2 2 0 r 2 eNA x d -d p x 0 p 2 0 r (x ) eND b x dn 2 0 x dn 2 0 r The continuity conditions for electric field at x = 0 gives NAd p NDdn eNA r 0 Like charge neutrality The continuity conditions for electric potential at x = 0 gives NAd p2 b 2 0 r b NDdn2 e e 2 0 r N d A 2 p dp NDdn2 eND r 0 dn Solving for dp & dn dp dn ND 2 0 r b 1 NA ND NA e Depends on dopant concentration 2 0 r b NA 1 ND ND NA e The total width of the depletion layer is N w d p dn dn 1 D NA w d p dn b 1V NA ND NA 2 NA 1 ND NA ND NA ND 2 0 r b ND NA e w 5x 10 7 m 500 nm NA ND 1016cm 3 10 22 m 3 0 r 10 2 0 r b e 10 F /m b w 2x 10 4 Vcm 1 AV Current-voltage behavior of the p-n junction Apply a voltage V < b to the junction V is > 0 if the barrier is decreased Forward bias V < b V is < 0 if the barrier is increased Reverse bias No V restriction resistivity of space charge region >> bulk p,n regions Total voltage drop is in the depletion layer dp ND 2 0 r (b V ) 1 NA ND NA e dn 2 0 r (b V ) NA 1 ND ND NA e w d p dn NA ND 2 0 r (b V ) ND NA e The total current through the junction is given by the changes in the minority carrier concentration, since the majority carriers are absent in the depletion layer Changes in minority carrier concentrations at boundaries of depletion layer np 0 nn 0 Assume quasi-equilibrium conditions n (x ) NDe EC ( x ) E F KBT nn 0 minority carriers np 0 n (dn ) NDe EC E F KBT EC (x ) EC ( e ) (x ) Equilibrium concentration of e- in neutral bulk n material Equilibrium concentration of e- in neutral bulk p material np 0 nn 0 Applying the potential + V n ( d p ) n (dn )e n (d p ) nn 0e Low injection conditions = majority carrier conc. have negligible change at the boundaries of depletion layer e (b V ) K BT e (b V ) KBT n (dn ) nn 0 np 0e Equilibrium concentration of e- in bulk n material eV KBT Equilibrium concentration of e- in bulk p material (minority carriers) The minority carrier concentration in –dp (p-type region/depl. region boundary) depends on V through the exponential Changes in minority carrier concentrations at the ends of the depletion layer np 0 n ( d p ) n p 0e eV K BT KeVT B n ( d p ) np 0 e 1 The e- (minority carrier) concentration in –dp (p-type region/depl. region boundary) depends on V through the exponential nn 0 eV KBT p (dn ) pn 0e KeVT B p (dn ) pn 0 e 1 The hole (minority carrier) concentration in dp (n-type region/depl. region boundary) depends on V through the exponential Changes in minority carrier concentrations nn 0 np 0 The total electron current is the diffusion current (drift due to minority carriers is negligible outside depletion region) eV K T Diff B Jn ( d p ) eDn n ( d p ) eDn np 0 e 1 The total hole current is the diffusion current (drift is negligible outside depletion region) eV K T Diff B J p (dn ) eDp p (dn ) eDp pn 0 e 1 Narrow space-charge region: neglect generation and recombination processes within it the total current is given by the sum of the contributions J eDp pn 0 eDn n p 0 KeVT B e 1 Js eDp pn 0 eDnnp 0 reverse saturation current Ideal diode equation KeVT J Js e B 1 Js is made by minority carrier contribution only: Holes are created thermally in the n-type region; those close to the barrier region reach the depletion layer by diffusion and are swept by the internal electric field to the p-side Same hold for e- Ideal I-V characteristic 1 I R V Differential resistance The impedance is low in forward bias 1- 10 The impedance is high in reverse bias 1 105 Real I-V characteristic (a) Generation-recombination (b) Diffusion-current (c) High-injection (d) Series-resistance effect (e) Reverse leakage current due to generationrecombination and surface effects. KeVT J Js e B 1 Junction breakdown For high fields applied to a p-n junction, the junction breaks down and conducts a very large current only in reverse-bias breakdown mechanisms (1) thermal instability (2) tunneling (3) Avalanche multiplication Thermal instability reverse current at high reverse voltage heat dissipation Increase in junction temperature increases the reverse current Js breakdown Tunneling Large fields can induce tunneling through the barriers Junction breakdown Avalanche multiplication In the presence of high field, reverse carriers can induce ionization within the barrier by scattering with the material atoms Breakdown voltage depends on impurity con. and gradient 3 VBD N EG 2 60 16 3 1.1eV 10 cm 3 4 Zener diode = well controlled VBD TRANSISTOR Electronic devices Light emitting diodes Solar cells Photodetectors holes e- Emitter: higly doped p region ~ 1018 cm-3 Base: weakly doped n region ~ 1014 cm-3 Collector: medium doped p region ~ 1016 cm-3 Base region width << holes diffusion length in n type holes Bipolar: the device relies on the behaviour of two types of carriers Bipolar junction TRANSISTOR 1018 cm-3 1014 cm-3 Base-Emitter: forward bias Setting VB to ground = 0 1016 cm-3 Base-Collector: reverse bias VC << 0 < VE BE in forward: the current is due to the hole injection in the base (the current due to e injection in the emitter is small, since the emitter is strongly doped, while the base is weakly doped). base region width << holes diffusion length in n type All holes are collected in C TRAN(sfer)-(re)SISTOR we expect IC to be only slightly smaller than IE TRANSISTOR VC << 0 < VE Collector current IC 0.99 IE Emitter current Current transfer parameter Base current IC IC 100 IB I E IC 1 IB IE IC Current gain TRANSISTOR JE JC For eVE >> KBT, VC << 0 JE JC DB NaE LE DE NdB w B IC IB E eV KT a11 e 1 E eV KT a21 e 1 eVC E eV a11 e KT 1 a12 e KT 1 eVC E eV a21 e KT 1 a22 e KT 1 aij DB ,DE ,DC JC a21 J E JC a11 a21 NaE= acceptor impurity doping in the emitter NdB= donor impurity doping in the base For large , a small variation of IB gives large IC SOLAR CELLS Solar spectrum for different relative atmospheric path lenghts x incident on the front surface Generation rate of e- hole pairs at x from the semiconductor surface G , x 1 R e x () = absorption coefficient () = photon flux R() = reflected fraction SOLAR CELLS • Abrupt p-n junction solar cell • Constant doping on each side • ND >> NA Depletion region at the n-side can be neglected • No electric fields outside the depletion region • Low injection condition Assumed abrupt doping profiles ND >> NA Photogenerated carriers collection n,p: diffusion depletion region: drift Jn , p eDn , p n Jn , p nen , p E np np 0 1 dJ n Gn 0 n e dx electrons in p-type substrate pn pn 0 1 dJ p Gp 0 p e dx holes in n-type substrate SOLAR CELLS dn p Jn enp n E eDn dx dp J p epn p E eDp n dx Current density equations n side d 2 pn Dp 2 dx pn pn 0 x 0 1 R e p Solved with appropriate boundary conditions Continuity equation SOLAR CELLS dn p Jn enp n E eDn dx dp J p epn p E eDp n dx Current density equations p side d 2np Dn dx 2 n np 0 1 R e x p 0 n Solved with appropriate boundary conditions Continuity equation SOLAR CELLS Total photocurrent J L Jn J p Jdr Spectral response SR Jn J p Jdr 1 R SR for different recombination velocities Total current is obtained by integration on Equivalent circuit for an ideal pn diode solar cell