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Archaeology in the Northeast of California Everyone else: “ Now that the general hostilities against the Indians have commenced we hope the government will render such aid as will enable the citizens of the north to carry out the extermination until the last redskin of these tribes has been killed. Extermination is no longer a question of time, the time has arrived. Let the first man that says treaty or peace be branded a traitor.” ---editorial in the Yreka Herald, 1861 Ethnicity The northeast was one of the last regions to be intruded on by white settlers. The region was home to Shasta, Modoc, Wintu, Yana, Pit River, Northern Maidu, and Piute Nine separate groups of three major linguistic stocks. The region has been little studied archaeologically. Environmental zones Variation from west to east. Mountainous to dry, desert-like scrubs. Volcanic lava beds in the east. Several deep river valleys supporting a wide range of resources. Mt Shasta in the central area. Interaction Similar manner as elsewhere in California: subsistence foraging, trade relations with neighbors and simple technologies. However, there also existed specific rivalries and traditional antagonistic groups. For example, the Shasta fought with the Modoc, but traded west with the Yurok and Hupa. All groups recognized and defended specific territories. Modoc Territory spanned California-Oregon and west-east. Other traditional enemies included the Klamath (one reason for failure of reservation was putting Modoc and Klamath together). Modoc lived in some of the best watered areas of the northern region. Modoc practiced seasonal transhumance, with specified areas for winter villages. Archaeological evidence for Subsistence foraging. Winter brought groups together in multi-family villages. Summer scarcity led to fractionization with small groups and individual families dispersing widely. Leadership focused on a headman; hereditary, but no true political organization. Because archaeology in the region has been limited we have poor understanding of the chronology of culture. Earliest phases most likely reach back to 6000 BC, with evidence in the form of corner notched and side notched projectile points. A bit older for the Piute region to the east. Several archaeological phases identified for the Modoc region. Summary At least 6000 years of occupation, possibly as deep as 11,000 years. Regional chronology is still sketchy. Settlement patterns are not well understood. Conflict Tribal: traditional enemies. With US Army; the Modoc wars of 1873 and beyond. Modoc led by Captain Jack. The site is now lava Beds National Monument. Relocated to Oklahoma One word essays: Ishi, The Last Yahi The next step is to take your one word essay and expand your meaning to a full paragraph…then discuss what you view as the central 1 or 2 issues presented by the film.