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Archaeology of North America The Archaic Southwest and Lower Pecos The Southwest Introduction Includes most of New Mexico and Arizona, southern Utah and Colorado, southeastern California and part of northwest Mexico This region has dramatic environmental contrasts Deserts to forested mountain ranges Low to moderate rainfall This variation is important to its past Agriculture distinguishes this area from all others in NA The Southwest Introduction The southwest is often defined culturally in two ways: By agriculture, farming artifacts, pottery, multi-room villages with public architecture By the absence of formal social stratification, large cities, writing and monumental architecture as seen at Mesoamerican sites They survived as agriculturists in this very harsh environment by staying flexible Southwest societies were in a constant state of change The Southwest Southwestern Peoples There four major cultural traditions that can be traced back Yuman-speaking people O’odham Pueblo Indians Apache and Navajo people The Southwest Southwestern Peoples Yuman speaking people Lived along the Colorado River Valley and the nearby uplands and in Baja California Practiced floodplain agriculture and also hunting and gathering Were skilled warriors and traders O’odham Lived in s. Arizona and n. parts of New Mexico in the deserts, rugged uplands and river valleys Uto-Aztecan speakers All lived in rancherias; small hamlets with separate family dwellings The Southwest Southwestern Peoples Pueblo Indians Lived in Arizona and New Mexico Spoke diverse languages but shared a common culture Hopi, Zuni, Acoma and other language groups Agriculturalists that also hunt and gather Live in villages made of adobe and stone that are often joined All pueblos have a ceremonial room: a Kiva Apache and Navajo people Athabaskan speakers, likely form Canada in the 16th century The Southwest The Environment The Southwest lies in several physiological zones: Rugged mountains to the south and west Large basins between the mountains The lowest of which is just 30 m above sea level and the highest in the Colorado Plateau at 1500 m There are several mesas, steep sided canyons, and vast gorges Volcanic deposits yielding obsidian In the east are the Rockies and the watershed that provides water for much of the region The Southwest The Environment Climate is arid to semiarid in general, but is highly localized making it difficult to discuss climate change though time In much of the western part the rainfall comes twice a year Winter storms from the Pacific bring rain and even snow between December and March In July and August there are short intense thunderstorms On average the south desert areas receives less than 20 cm of rain per year The Southwest The Environment In the east most of the precipitation comes in July and August in Gulf thunderstorms The gulf stream has a dramatic effect on the amount and distribution of precipitation, leading to unpredictable cycles of rainfall and droughts In other words, relying on rainfall alone is dangerous For agriculture, they used seeps and springs on the Colorado Plateau, and irrigated along the banks of the Rio Grande The Southwest The Plants The vegetation in the southern deserts is brush As one moves northward it becomes mixed grasses, shrubs, open pine, pinon pine, and juniper forests On the Colorado Plateau it is arid grasslands, with wide spread sage brush and open juniper-pinon woodland The Southwest The Plants There are many edible plants in the region Agave: the leaves and centers are roasted and stored Sotol, Yukka, cactus fruits, mesquite and cholla Wild onions and potatoes can be roasted and boiled Many seasonal fruits (hackberry and juniper) Nuts and seeds: ground and mixed with cornmeal In times of low precipitation many of these plants lie dormant and thus they cannot be harvested forcing people to gather these resources over large distances Agave plant Yucca plant Cholla Plant Sotol Plant The Southwest The Animals The animals in the region survive off the plants and thus too must be flexible Most are omnivorous These animals include deer, big-horn sheep, pronghorns, Other animals include Jack rabbits, cottontails, gophers, prairie dogs, voles, birds, waterfowl (along the rivers), and dogs Some groups even domesticated the turkey The Southwest Agriculture The most important resource for these people during the past 2000 years was domesticated maize Agriculture requires that There are enough growing days precipitation good temperatures The high temperatures of the deserts and low of the plateau mean different growing lengths, as does the aridity of the region The Southwest Agriculture Due to the constant variability of much of the southwest (so much so that from one part of a canyon to the other the yield would be different) the farmers had to develop ways to ensure some success This rested on the careful use of the scarce water sources and involved carefully placing the gardens where they could capitalize on this resource The Southwest Basic Framework for SW Archaeology The Pecos Pueblo site on the Rio Grand in New Mexico was the main site for developing a chronology for the southwest Alfred Kidder developed this Pecos chronology for the site, occupied before 1540 to 1838, and is still used more or less today The Pecos classification is based on architecture, pottery, stools and to some extent skeletal characteristics The Southwest Basic Framework for SW Archaeology There are 8 cultural stages: Basketmaker I: a pre-agricultural stage. This is now called Archaic Basketmaker II (Basketmaker): farmers and using spear-throwers Basketmaker III (Post Basketmaker): pottery, pit and slab houses Then 5 Pueblo stages (I – V): connected to the rise of Pueblo culture to historic times The Southwest Basic Framework for SW Archaeology The problem with this chronology is that Kidder defined it as a cultural evolution In reality it is much more complex, with great diversity not only in the periods but between the regions within the southwest Now the southwest is put into a broad cultural framework Paleo-Indian: 13 000 BP – 6500 BC Southwestern Archaic: 6500 BC – AD 200 Then four major cultural traditions subdivided into chronological phases The Southwest Basic Framework for SW Archaeology Anasazi: (?1 AD – present) Early ancestors In the northern southwest Main sites include Chaco Canyon and Mesa Verde Hohokam: (C. AD 400 – 1500) Those who have gone The southern desert regions of the southwest Rectangular, single unit dwellings, low platform mounds, ball courts, cremations, irrigation systems and pebble and anvil decorated pottery Trading with Mesoamerica The Southwest Basic Framework for SW Archaeology Mongollon: (?250 BC – AD 1450) Early Spanish Colonial governor of New Mexico Located in the mountains in southeastern Arizona and southwestern New Mexico Noted for the plain and corrugated brown or red ceramics found over a large area Pithouses Patayan: (AD 875 – present) Old People West of the Hohokam region and north to the Grand Canyon Not yet well defined The Southwest The Paleo-Indians +10 500 – 6500 BC Well documented Clovis and Folsom sites The bones of extinct animals are found at several sites Mammoth and bison kill sites are seen Blackwater Draw Bison dominated in the east and plants in the west Population was small and dispersed By the end of this period the population had began to develop more diverse subsistence strategies connected to the local resources. The Southwest Southwestern Archaic (c. 6500 BC – AD 200) Around the Mid Holocene when climate began to warm (the Altithermal) the vegetation changed into what it is today Forests were replaced with desert scrub and grasslands The beginning of the Archaic is marked with dried weather in several places The Altithermal is followed by fluctuations in the aridity of the region The Southwest Southwestern Archaic (c. 6500 BC – AD 200) Diversification of their resources was vital They relied heavily on plant foods and smaller animals The population was on the move in search of resources, meaning that the sites are transitory settlements, occupied for only short periods of time For this reason the archaeological record is very incomplete Only in the odd cave yields a more complete preserved record The Southwest Southwestern Archaic (c. 6500 BC – AD 200) During this period the people lived and made use of a variety of environments depending on the conditions This is seen in the archaeological record as a multidimensional mosaic of hunter and gather societies with great local and short term variation Mano and metates appear in this period throughout the southwest attesting the processing of seeds The Southwest Southwestern Archaic (c. 6500 BC – AD 200) Some scholars have tried to use the projectile points to distinguish the local traditions through time The complexity makes this very difficult Hafting techniques are also looked at The fact that many Archaic sites have not been securely dated adds to the problem In general, from Paleo-Indian into the Early Archaic, projectile points styles are similar over large areas The Southwest Southwestern Archaic (c. 6500 BC – AD 200) By the Middle Archaic there is a diversity of point styles used over small areas, likely connected to the local resources and perhaps the stone itself Some argue that this may also be linked with some population growth and the limiting of territories as a result, with less mobility At this same time trade became much more important The Southwest Southwestern Archaic (c. 6500 BC – AD 200) Despite the complexity and problems for this period, Cynthia Irwin-Williams identified four interacting Archaic traditions San-Dieguito-Pinto Tradition (6500 BC – AD 200) Oshara Tradition (c. 5500 BC – c. AD 600) Cochise Tradition (? + 5000 – c. 200 BC) Chihuahua (? 6000 BC – AD 250) For now these traditions are provisional at best The Southwest Southwestern Archaic (c. 6500 BC – AD 200) San-Dieguto-Pinto (Western) Tradition This is the western most tradition It evolves from the Paleo-Indian groups It is identified based on the Pinto Basin points with straight stems and concave bases Oshara (Northern) Tradition May also have Paleo-Indian roots Has several phases, each with its own projectiles Link with long-term cultural development for the local Archaic cultures into the PuebloAnasazi culture Pinto Basin Points The Southwest Southwestern Archaic (c. 6500 BC – AD 200) Cochise (Southern) Tradition Several phases within this tradition, the latter of which are better known Tool kit has a variety of projectile points and many seed processing artifacts Many of the projectile points are large, with corner or side notches and straight or convex bases Population growth is noted by c. 1500 BC By this time they were also cultivating maize and other crops The Southwest Southwestern Archaic (c. 6500 BC – AD 200) Cochise (Southern) Tradition Groups are exploiting a wide range of regions Possibly living in more permanent settlements Seen by the large oval pithouses (0.5 m below the ground) that would have required effort to build The later Mongollon tradition may have developed out of this tradition Chihuahua (Southeastern) Tradition Poorly defined, but likely includes local adaptations that evolved over long periods of time The Southwest Southwestern Archaic (c. 6500 BC – AD 200) A Population Movement and Climate Model Claudia and Michael Berry note that there are several gaps during the Archaic period seen with C14 dates. Technically if there is gradual change in this region over time these gaps should not be there. They believe the population fluctuations are relate to climate changes in the region. They divide the Archaic into 3 main periods Periods I, II and III The Southwest Southwestern Archaic (c. 6500 BC – AD 200) Period I (8000 – 3000 BC) This is a period of fluctuating warm-wet and cold-dry climates Very little is known archaeologically The sparse population likely concentrated around clusters of food resources, but intermittently The Pinto point is connected with this period (the earliest Archaic point in the east) The Southwest Southwestern Archaic (c. 6500 BC – AD 200) Period II (3000 – 1000 BC) This period began with increased rainfall Population increased as a result, and peaked New points appear, including the Gypsum and other contracting stemmed points These points have strong connections to the Tehuacan Valley and elsewhere in Mexico This may be a time when groups are moving up from Mexico because of deteriorating climate there and increased rainfall in the southwest The Southwest Southwestern Archaic (c. 6500 BC – AD 200) Period III (1000 BC – AD 500) Climate becomes drier now Agriculture (maize crops) takes hold This is connected with the San Pedro stage of the Cochise culture Just before AD 500 there is another jump in sites = when the agriculturists become sedentary cultivators The Southwest Southwestern Archaic (c. 6500 BC – AD 200) This model is more sophisticated in that it combines the climate data with the archaeology It also notes that different things are happening in different areas, where and when productivity varies It is also different in the sense that it is not only of gradual change but rather of population movements – which is more likely the case These movements would be in response of climate changing and with it the local resources The Archaic people also would have developed conservative strategies The Southwest The South and East c. 11 000 BC - Pres In the Lower Pecos Valley and extreme southwestern Texas is a semi-arid to subhumid brushland dominated by thorny brush There are coastal marshes along the Gulf that are protected by barrier islands This area is but part of the greater arid southwest region of NA The Southwest The South and East c. 11 000 BC - Pres Pollen data tells us that in the Early Holocene this area had a pinon pine and juniper woodland cover that changed to grassland and cactus vegetation in the Mid Holocene Then at the time of European settlement it became even more arid into a thorny brush land These changes forced the hunting and gathering population to adapt The Southwest The South and East c. 11 000 BC - Pres The Lower Pecos Canyonlands lie around the Pecos and Devils rivers, and the Rio Grande to the southwest The canyonlands are famous for their dry caves and pictographs Bonfire Shelter is the southern most and earliest known bison jump in the Americas The cliff was 37 m high About 40 Bison antiquus date between 10 000 and 8000 BC were killed Then 8000 years later Archaic hunters stampeded three herds over the cliff totaling about 800 bison The Southwest The South and East c. 11 000 BC - Pres The dry caves in the region yield a great deal of information Twined, plaited and coiled baskets, sandals, mats and bags made out of plant fibers They wove partitions to separate areas of the caves Bags, blankets, robes and pouches were made of deer, bison and rabbits Digging sticks and curved boomerang-like sticks for killing rabbits were found, as were atlatls Freshwater shells made into spoons and scoops, bone and antler pins and weaving tools are also common The Southwest The South and East c. 11 000 BC - Pres The superb preservation allows for the understanding of a long cultural sequence beginning 11 000 BC to the present The sequence begins with the Bonfire cave occupation and into the early Archaic Bonfire phase between 10 000 and 7 000 BC The Pecos Archaic is then divided into Early, Middle and Late Periods from 7000 BC – historic times The Southwest The South and East c. 11 000 BC - Pres In central Texas there is a long occupation from Clovis to historic times, with a sequence of dart points through the Archaic The Archaic sequence is well documented at Baker Cave (from 7000 BC AD 1400) above a tributary of the Devils river Interestingly, specialized cooking earth ovens are seen in this area and by the Middle Archaic they are in regular use for plant cooking Thousands of burned rock middens are found throughout central Texas The Southwest The South and East c. 11 000 BC - Pres The canyonlands are best known for the rock art Pictographs and petroglyphs are both found The earliest art is of abstract human figures in various mineral colours Some animals (deer, fish, zoomorphs), human forms and Shamans (with their paraphernalia) are painted almost life-size This is called Pecos River Style The Southwest The South and East c. 11 000 BC - Pres Other paintings show group activities, like deer roundups, processions (with some with headdresses), bison or deer being driven into net-like barrier or to jumps Later arts show bows and arrows, and historic art has crosses, horses, cattle and active hostility to Spaniards The Southwest Historical Peoples of the Region In central and southern Texas the 11 000 years of continuous occupation is traced back Ethnohistoric studies of historic groups suggest that their ancestors were displaced by Spaniards from the south and the Plains Apache and Comanche from the north and west At that time there were perhaps dozens of small hunting and gathering groups living in the area