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Section A
The rivers of India play an important role in
the lives of the Indian people. The river
systems provide irrigation, potable water,
cheap transportation, electricity, and the
livelihoods for a large number of people all
over the country. This easily explains why
nearly all the major cities of India are located
by the banks of rivers. The rivers also have an
important role in Hindu mythology and are
considered holy by all Hindus in the country.
Seven major rivers along with their numerous
tributaries make up the river system of India.
Most of the rivers pour their waters into the
Bay of Bengal; however, some of the rivers
whose courses take them through the
western part of the country and towards the
east of the state of Himachal Pradesh empty
into the Arabian Sea. Parts of Ladakh,
northern parts of the Aravalli range and the
arid parts of the Thar Desert have inland
drainage.
All major rivers of India originate from one of
the three main watersheds:
1. The Himalaya and the Karakoram ranges
2. Vindhya and Satpura ranges and Chotanagpur plateau in central India
3. Sahyadri or Western
Ghats in western India
Rivers of India
India is sometimes referred to as the "Land of Rivers". The
multitude of tributaries and the close binding of Indian
civilization and culture to the local rivers is the reason for
this characterization. Travel anywhere in India and one is
overcome by how much the rivers influence the economy
and local cultures. Indeed, Indians have worshipped rivers
as a form of Mother Goddess from ancient times.
Indus River System
The Indus River originates in the northern slopes of the Kailash range near
Lake Mansarovar in Tibet. Although most of the river's course runs through
neighboring Pakistan, a portion of it does run through Indian territory, as do
parts of the courses of its five major tributaries, listed below. These tributaries
are the source of the name of the Punjab region of South Asia; the name is
derived from the Persian words Punj ("five") and aab ("water"), hence the
combination of the words (Punjab) means "five waters" or "land of five
waters".
1. Beas
The Beas originates in Beas Kund, lying near
the Rohtang pass. It runs past Manali and
Kulu, where its beautiful valley is known as the
Kulu valley. It joins the Sutlej river near Harika,
after being joined by a few tributaries. The total
length of the river is 615 .
2. Chenab
The Chenab originates from the confluence of two
rivers, the Chandra and the Bhaga, It is also known
as the Chandrabhaga in Himachal Pradesh. It runs
parallel to the Pir It enters the plains of Punjab near
Akhnur and is later joined by the Jhelum. It is
further joined by the Ravi and the Sutlej in
Pakistan.
3. Jhelum
The Jhelum originates in the south-eastern
part of Kashmir, in a spring at Verinag situated
at the foot of the Pir Panjal in the southeastern part of the valley of Kashmir in India.
It flows through Srinagar and the Wular lake
before entering Pakistan through a deep
narrow gorge.
4. Ravi
The Ravi originates near the Rotang pass in
the Himalayas and follows a north-westerly
course. It turns to the south-west, near
Dalhousie, and then cuts a gorge in the
Dhaola Dhar range entering the Punjab plain
near Madhopur. It flows as a part of the IndoPakistan border for some distance before
entering Pakistan and joining the Chenab
river.
5. Sutlej
The Sutlej originates from the Rakas Lake,
which is connected to the Manasarovar lake
by a stream, in Tibet. It enters Pakistan near
Sulemanki, and is later joined by the Chenab.
It has a total length of almost 1500 km.
The Ganges
The Ganges (pronounced Hindi: गंगा Gaṅgā,
as in most Indian languages) is one of the
major rivers of the Indian subcontinent,
flowing east through the Gangetic Plain of
northern India into Bangladesh. The
2,510 km (1,560 mi) river rises in the western
Himalayas in the Uttarakhand state of India,
and drains into the Sunderbans delta in the
Bay of Bengal. It has long been considered a
holy river by Hindus and worshiped as the
goddess Ganga in Hinduism.
It has also been important historically: many former provincial or imperial capitals
(such as Patliputra, Kannauj, Kara, Allahabad, Murshidabad, and Calcutta) have been
located on its banks. The Ganges Basin drains 1,000,000-square-kilometre
(390,000 sq mi) and supports one of the world's highest density of humans. The
average depth of the river is 52 feet (16 m), and the maximum depth, 100 feet
(30 m).
Although many small streams comprise the
headwaters of the Ganges, the six longest
headstreams and their five confluences are
given both cultural and geographical
emphasis (see the map showing the
headwaters of the river).
The Alaknanda river meets the Dhauliganga
river at Vishnuprayag, the Nandakini river at
Nandprayag, the Pindar river at Karnaprayag,
the Mandakini river at Rudraprayag and finally
the Bhagirathi river at Devprayag, to form the
mainstem, the Ganges. The Bhagirathi is the
source stream; it rises at the foot of Gangotri
Glacier at Gaumukh, at an elevation of
3,892 m (12,770 ft). The headwaters of the
Alaknanda are formed by snowmelt from such
peaks as Nanda Devi, Trisul, and Kamet.
After flowing 200 km through its narrow Himalayan
valley, the Ganges debouches on the Gangetic Plain
at the pilgrimage town of Haridwar. There, a dam
diverts some of its waters into the Ganges Canal,
which irrigates the Doab region of Uttar Pradesh.
The Ganges, whose course has been roughly
southwestern until this point, now begins to flow
southeast through the plains of northern India.
Further, the river follows an 800 km curving course
passing through the city of Kanpur before being
joined from the southwest by the Yamuna at
Allahabad This point is known as the Sangam at
Allahabad. Sangam is a sacred place in Hinduism.
According to ancient Hindu texts, at one time a
third river, the Sarasvati, met the other two rivers
at this point.
Joined by numerous rivers such as the Kosi, Son, Gandaki and Ghaghra, the Ganges
forms a formidable current in the stretch between Allahabad and Malda in West
Bengal. On its way it passes the towns of Kanpur, Soron, Kannauj, Allahabad, Varanasi,
Patna,Ghazipur,Bhagalpur,Mirzapur,Ballia, Buxar , Saidpur, and Chunar.At Bhagalpur,
the river meanders past the Rajmahal Hills, and begins to run south. At Pakur, the river
begins its attrition with the branching away of its first distributary, the BhāgirathiHooghly which goes on to form the Hooghly River. Near the border with Bangladesh
the Farakka Barrage, built in 1974, controls the flow of the Ganges, diverting some of
the water into a feeder canal linking the Hooghly to keep it relatively silt-free.
river system.
After entering Bangladesh, the main branch of the
Ganges is known as the Padma River until it is joined by
the Jamuna River, the largest distributary of the
Brahmaputra. Further downstream, the Ganges is fed by
the Meghna River, the second largest tributary of the
Brahmaputra, and takes on the Meghna's name as it
enters the Meghna Estuary. Fanning out into the 350 km
wide Ganges Delta, it finally empties into the Bay of
Bengal. Only two rivers, the Amazon and the Congo, have
greater discharge than the combined flow of the Ganges,
the Brahmaputra and the Surma-Meghna.
There are two major dams on the Ganges. One
at Haridwar diverts much of the Himalayan
snow-melt into the Upper Ganges Canal, built
by the British in 1854 to irrigate the
surrounding land. This caused severe
deterioration to the water flow in the Ganges,
and is a major cause for the decay of Ganges as
an inland waterway.
The other dam is a serious hydroelectric affair
at Farakka, close to the point where the main
flow of the river enters Bangladesh, and the
tributary Hooghly (also known as Bhagirathi)
continues in West Bengal past Calcutta. This
barrage, which feeds the Hooghly branch of
the river by a 26 mile long feeder canal, and its
water flow management has been a longlingering source of dispute with Bangladesh,
A branch of the Hooghly, the Damodar, flows
south and enters the Bay of Bengal at the
growing port of Haldia. It has the large
hydroelectric dam called Damodar Valley
Project, built on the lines of the Tennessee
Valley Authority. There is also a controversial
dam at Tehri, on the Bhagirathi, one of the
main source rivers of Ganges.
Another dam is proposed to be built on the
upper reaches of a tributary of the Ganges,
Mahakali, This Indo-Nepal project, the
Pancheswar dam, proposes to be the highest
dam in the world and will be built with US
collaboration.
The upper and lower Ganga canal, which is actually the
backbone of a network of canals, runs from Haridwar to
Allahabad, but maintenance has not been very good.
Tehri Dam is also constructed on Bhagirathi river,
tributory of ganga. Main purpose was to supply water to
New Delhi.
The Ganges Basin with its fertile soil is instrumental to
the agricultural economies of India and Bangladesh.
The Ganges and its tributaries provide a perennial
source of irrigation to a large area. Chief crops
cultivated in the area include rice, sugarcane, lentils,
oil seeds, potatoes, and wheat. Along the banks of the
river, the presence of swamps and lakes provide a rich
growing area for crops such as legumes, chillies,
mustard, sesame, sugarcane, and jute. There are also
many fishing opportunities to many along the river,
though it remains highly polluted.
Tourism is another related activity. Three towns holy to
Hinduism – Haridwar, Allahabad, and Varanasi – attract
thousands of pilgrims to its waters. Thousands of Hindu pilgrims
arrive at these three towns to take a dip in the Ganges, which is
believed to cleanse oneself of sins and help attain salvation. The
rapids of the Ganges also are popular for river rafting, attracting
hundreds of adventure seekers in the summer months. Muslims
from India & Bangladesh often do wudu, a religious cleansing of
the body for prayer in the Ganges River.
The Brahmaputra
The Brahmaputra,[also called Tsangpo-Brahmaputra, is a trans-boundary river and one
of the major rivers of Asia.
From its origin in southwestern Tibet as the Yarlung Zangbo River, it flows across
southern Tibet to break through the Himalayas in great gorges and into Arunachal
Pradesh where it is known as Dihang. It flows southwest through the Assam Valley as
Brahmaputra and south through Bangladesh as the Jamuna (not to be mistaken with
Yamuna of India). There it merges with the Ganges to form a vast delta. About 1,800
miles (2,900 km) long, the river is an important source for irrigation and transportation.
Its upper course was long unknown, and its identity with the Yarlung Tsangpo was only
established by exploration in 1884-86.
This river is often called Tsangpo-Brahmaputra river. The average depth of river is
124 feet (38 m) and maximum depth is 380 feet (120 m). In Bangladesh the river merges
with the Ganges and splits into two: the Padma and Meghna River. When it merges with
the Ganges it forms the world's largest delta, the Sunderbans. The Sunderbans is known
for tigers, crocodiles and mangroves. While most Indian and Bangladeshi rivers bear
female names, this river has a rare male name, as it means "son of Brahma" in Sanskrit
(putra means "son").
The Brahmaputra is navigable for
most of its length. The lower part
reaches are sacred to Hindus. The
river is prone to catastrophic
flooding in spring when the
Himalayan snows melt. It is also one
of the few rivers in the world that
exhibit a tidal bore.
River course
The Yarlung Tsangpo originates in the Jima
Yangzong glacier near Mount Kailash in the
northern Himalayas. It then flows east for
about 1,700 kilometres (1,100 mi), at an
average height of 4,000 metres (13,000 ft), and
is thus the highest of the major rivers in the
world. At its easternmost point, it bends
around Mt. Namcha Barwa, and forms the
Yarlung Tsangpo Canyon which is considered
the deepest in the world.
Until Indian independence in 1947, the
Brahmaputra was used as a major waterway. In
the 1990s, the stretch between Sadiya and
Dhubri in India was declared as National
Waterway No.2., and it provides facilities for
goods transportation. Recent years have seen
a modest spurt in the growth of river cruises
with the introduction of the cruise ship,
"Charaidew," by Assam Bengal Navigation
As the river enters Arunachal Pradesh, it is called Siang and makes a very rapid descent
from its original height in Tibet, and finally appears in the plains, where it is called
Dihang. It flows for about 35 kilometres (22 mi) and is joined by two other major rivers:
Dibang and Lohit. From this point of confluence, the river becomes very wide and is
called Brahmaputra. It is joined in Sonitpur District by the Jia Bhoreli (named the
Kameng River where it flows from Arunachal Pradesh) and flows through the entire
state of Assam. In Assam the river is sometimes as wide as 10 kilometres (6.2 mi).
Between Dibrugarh and Lakhimpur districts the river
divides into two channels---the northern Kherkutia
channel and the southern Brahmaputra channel. The
two channels join again about 100 kilometres (62 mi)
downstream forming the Majuli island. At Guwahati
near the ancient pilgrimage center of Hajo, the
Brahmaputra cuts through the rocks of the Shillong
Plateau, and is at its narrowest at 1 kilometre
(1,100 yd) bank-to-bank. Because the Brahmaputra is
the narrowest at this point the Battle of Saraighat was
fought here. The first rail-cum-road bridge across the
Brahmaputra was opened to traffic in April 1962 at
Saraighat.
The Sutlej
The Sutlej River is the longest of the five rivers that flow
through the historic crossroad region of Punjab in
northern India and Pakistan. It is located north of the
Vindhya Range south of the Hindu Kush segment of the
Himalayas, and east of the Central Sulaiman Range in
Pakistan.
The Sutlej is sometimes known as the Red River. It is
the easternmost tributary of the Indus River Its
source is at Lake Rakshastal in Tibet near Mount
Kailas, and it flows generally west and southwest
entering India through the Shipki La pass in
Himachal Pradesh. It waters the ancient and
historically important region of Greater Punjab. The
region to its south and east is arid, and is known as
the Great Indian Desert or Thar Desert.
The Sutlej Valley from Rampur ca. 1857
The Sutlej joins with the Beas River in Hari-Ke-Patan, Amritsar, Punjāb, India, and
continues southwest into Pakistan to unite with the Chenab River, forming the
Panjnad River south of ancient Multān.
The Panjnad joins the Indus River at
Mithankot. Indus then flows through a
gorge near Sukkur, flows through the
fertile plains region of Sindh, and
terminates in the Arabian Sea near the
port city of Karachi in Pakistan.
The waters of the Sutlej are allocated to India under
the Indus Waters Treaty between India and Pakistan,
and are mostly diverted to irrigation canals in India.
A huge, multipurpose Bhakra-Nangal Dam has been
built on the Sutlej by the Indian government.
There are several major hydroelectric projects on the
Sutlej, e.g. the 1000MW Karcham-Wangtoo HEP.
There has been a proposal to build a 214-kilometre
(133 mi) long heavy freight canal, known as the
Sutlej-Yamuna Link (SYL), in India to connect the
Sutlej and Yamuna rivers. However, the proposal met
obstacles and was referred to the Supreme Court.
The Sutlej was known as Śutudri in the Vedic .
The Sutlej, along with all of the Punjab rivers, is thought to have drained east
into the Ganges prior to 5 mya.
There is substantial geologic evidence to indicate that prior to 1700 BC at the
latest, Sutlej was an important tributary of the Ghaggar-Hakra River (possibly
through the Saraswati river) rather than the Indus with various authors putting
the redirection from 2500-2000 BC or 5000-3000 BC.
Geologists believe that tectonic activity
created elevation changes which
redirected the flow of Sutlej from the
southeast to the southwest. The mighty
Saraswati then began to dry up, causing
desertification of Cholistan and the
eastern part of the modern state of
Sindh. The desertification resulted in
abandonment of numerous ancient
human settlements along the banks of
Saraswati[
There is some evidence that the high rate of erosion caused by the modern Sutlej
River has influenced the local faulting and rapidly exhumed rocks above Rampur.
This would be similar to, but on a much smaller scale then, the exhumation of rocks
by the Indus River in Nanga Parbat, Pakistan. The Sutlej river also exposes a doubled
inverted metamorphic gradient
The source of the Sutlej is just west of Mt. Kailash in western Tibet. This is roadless
area, and was first explored by kayak and raft by Russian and German teams in
2004.
The largest modern industrial city along the Sutlej banks is Ludhiana.
The Yamuna
The Yamuna is the largest tributary river of the
Ganges (Ganga) in northern India. Originating from
the Yamunotri Glacier at a height 6,387 mtrs., on the
south western slopes of Banderpooch peaks, in the
Lower Himalayas, it travels a total length of
1,376 kilometers (855 mi) and has a drainage system
of 366,223 km2, 40.2% of the entire Ganga Basin,
before merging with the Ganges at Triveni Sangam,
Allahabad, the site for the Kumbha Mela every
twelve years.
It crosses several states, Uttarakhand, Haryana and Uttar Pradesh, passing by
Himachal Pradesh and later Delhi, and meets several of its tributaries on the way,
including Tons, its largest and longest tributary, Chambal, which has its own large
basin, followed by Sindh, the Betwa, and Ken.
Most importantly it creates the highly fertile alluvial,
'Yamuna-Ganga Doab' region between itself and the
Ganges in the Indo-Gangetic plain. Nearly 57 million
people depend on the Yamuna waters. With an annual
flow of about 10,000 cubic metres (cum) and usage of
4,400 cum (of which irrigation constitutes 96 per cent),
the river accounts for more than 70 per cent of Delhi’s
water supplies.
Just like the Ganges, the Yamuna too is highly
venerated in Hinduism and worshipped as goddess
Yamuna, throughout its course. In Hindu mythology,
she is the daughter of Sun God, Surya, and sister of
Yama, the God of Death, hence also known as Yami,
and according to popular legends, bathing in its sacred
waters frees one from the torments of death .
The water of Yamuna is of "reasonably good quality" through its length from
Yamunotri in the Himalayas to Wazirabad in Delhi, about 375 km, where the
discharge of waste water through 15 drains between Wazirabad barrage and
Okhla barrage renders the river severely polluted after Wazirabad in Delhi. One
official describes the river as a "sewage drain" with biochemical oxygen demand
(BOD) values ranging from 14 to 28 mg/l and high coliform content.
There are three main sources of pollution in the river,
namely households and municipal disposal sites, soil
erosion resulting from deforestation occurring to make
way for agriculture along with resulting chemical wash-off
from fertilizers, herbicides, and pesticides and run-off
from commercial activity and industrial sites.
The source of Yamuna lies in the Yamunotri Glacier at a height 6,387 mtrs., on the
south western slopes of Banderpooch peaks, which lie in the Mussoorie range of
Lower Himalayas, in the Uttarkashi district, Uttarakhand, north of Haridwar.
Yamunotri temple, a shrine dedicated to the goddess, Yamuna is one of the holiest
shrines in Hinduism, and part of the Chota Char Dham Yatra circuit. Also standing
close to the temple, on its 13 km trek route, that follows the right bank of the river,
lies the Markendeya Tirtha, where the sage Markandeya wrote the Markandeya
Purana.
From here it flows southwards, for about 200 km
through the Lower Himalayas and the Shivalik Hills
Range and morainic deposited are found in its steep
Upper Yamuna valley, highlighted with geomorphic
features such as interlocking spurs, steep rock
benches, and stream terraces.
Large terraces formed over a long period of time can
be seen in the lower course of the river, like ones
near Naugoan. An important part of its early
catchment area totalling 2,320 km² lies in Himachal
Pradesh, and an important tributary draining the
Upper Catchment Area is the Tons, Yamuna's largest
and longest tributary, which rises from the Hari-kidun valley and holds water more than the main
stream, which it merges after Kalsi near Dehradun.
The entire drainage system of the river stretches all
the way between Giri-Sutlej catchment in Himachal
and Yamuna-Bhilangna catchment in Garhwal,
indeed the southern ridge of Shimla is also drained
into this system.
Other tributaries in the region are the Giri, Rishi Ganga, Kunta, Hanuman Ganga and Bata
tributaries, which drain the Upper Catchment Area of the vast Yamuna basin. Thereafter
the river descends on to the plains of Doon Valley, at Dak Pathar near Dehradun. Here
through a weir dam, the water is diverted into a canal for power generation, little further
down where Yamuna is met by the Assan River, lies the Assan barrage, which hosts a Bird
Sanctuary as well.
After passing the Sikh pilgrimage town of Paonta Sahib, it reaches Tajewala in Yamuna
Nagar district, of Haryana, where a dam built in 1873, is the originating place of two
important canals, the Western Yamuna Canal and Eastern Yamuna Canal, which irrigate
the states of Haryana and Uttar Pradesh.
The Western Yamuna Canal (WYC) crosses Yamuna
Nagar, Karnal and Panipat before reaching the Haiderpur
treatment plant, which supplies part of municipal water
supply to Delhi, further it also receives waste water from
Yamuna Nagar and Panipat cities. Yamuna is replenished
again after this by seasonal streams and groundwater
accrual, in fact during the dry season, it remains dry in
many stretches from Tajewala till Delhi, where it enters
near Palla village after traversing 224 km.
The Yamuna also creates natural state borders between the Himachal
Pradesh and Uttarakhand states, and further down between the state of
Haryana and Uttar Pradesh. Along with Ganga to which run almost parallel
after it touches the Indo-Gangetic plain, the largest alluvial fertile plain in
the world, it creates the Ganga-Yamuna Doab region spread across
69,000 km2, one-third of the entire plain, and today known for its
agricultural outputs, prominent among them is the cultivation of Basmati
Rice. The plain itself supports one-third of India's population through its
farming.
State
Catchment area
(km2)
Uttar Pradesh and
Uttarakhand
74,208
Himachal Pradesh
5,799
Haryana
21,265
Rajasthan
102,883
Madhya Pradesh
14,023
Delhi
1,485
Subsequently, it flows through
the states of Delhi, Haryana and
Uttar Pradesh, before merging
with the Ganges at a sacred spot
known as Triveni Sangam in
Allahabad after traversing a
distance of 1,376 kilometers
(855 miles). Here pilgrims travel
by boats to platforms erected
mid stream to offer prayers.
During the Kumbh Mela, held every 12 years, the ghats around
the Sangam are venue of large congregation of people, who take
dip in the sacred waters of the confluence. The cities of Baghpat,
Delhi, Noida, Mathura, Agra, Firozabad, Etawah, Kalpi, Hamirpur,
Allahabad lie on its banks. At Etawah, it meets it another
important tributary, Chambal, followed by a host of tributaries
further down, including, Sindh, the Betwa, and Ken.
Tributaries
Tons River, Yamuna's largest and longest tributary, rises in the
20,720 ft (6,315 meters) high Bandarpoonch mountain, and
has a large basin in Himachal Pradesh. It meets Yamuna
below Kalsi near Dehradun, Uttarakhand.
Hindon River, originates in the Saharanpur District, from
Upper Shivalik in Lower Himalayan Range, is entirely rainfed
and has a catchment area of 7, 083 km2, traverses 400 km
through Muzaffarnagar District, Meerut District, Baghpat
District, Ghaziabad, Noida, Greater Noida, before joining
Yamuna just outside Delhi.
Ken River, flows through Bundelkhand region
of Madhya Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh, it
originates near village Ahirgawan in Jabalpur
district and travels a distance of 427 km,
before merging with the Yamuna at Chilla
village, near Fatehpur in Uttar Pradesh, and
has an overall drainage basin of 28,058 km2.
Chambal River, known as Charmanvati in
ancient times, flows through Rajasthan and
Madhya Pradesh, with a drainage basin of
143,219 km2 and traverses a total distance of
960 km, from its source in Vindhya Range, near
Mhow and support hydro-power generation at
Gandhi Sagar dam, Rana Pratap Sagar dam and
Jawahar Sagar dam, before merging into the
Yamuna south east of Sohan Goan, in Etawah
district, shortly there after followed by another
tributary, the Sindh River.
Irrigation
The importance of Yamuna in the Indo-Gangetic Plains is enhanced by its many
canals, some dating back to as early as 14th century CE by Tughlaq dynasty, which
built the Nahr-i-Bahisht (Paradise), parallel to the river, it was later restored and
extended by the Mughals in the first half of seventeenth century, by engineer Ali
Mardan Khan, starting from Benawas where the river enters the plains and
terminating near the Mughal capital, Shahjahanabad, the present city of Delhi [21].
As the Yamuna enters the Northern plains near
Dak Pathar at a height of 790 meters, two
canals namely, the Eastern and Western
Yamuna Canals commence from the Assan
barrage about 11 kilometers from Dak Pathar
in Doon Valley, the canals irrigate vast tracts of
lands in the region, then once its passes Delhi,
it feeds the Agra Canal built in in 1874, which
starts from Okhla barrage beyond the
Nizamuddin bridge, and the high land between
the Khari-Nadi and the Yamuna and before
joining the Banganga river about 20 miles
below Agra. Thus during the summer season,
the stretch above Agra resembles a minor
stream.
A heavy freight canal, known as the Sutlej-Yamuna Link (SYL), is being built
westwards from near its headwaters through the Punjab region near an
ancient caravan route and highlands pass to the navigable parts of the
Sutlej-Indus watershed. This will connect the entire Ganges, which flows to
the east coast of the subcontinent, with points west (via Pakistan).
When completed, the SYL will allow shipping
from India's east coast to the west coast and
the Arabian sea, drastically shortening shipping
distances and creating important commercial
links for north-central India's large population.
The canal starts near Palla village near Delhi,
and was to transfer Haryana's share of 3.5 MAF
from Indus Basin, though state of Haryana has
completed its portion, Punjab is against its
construction, and the state legislature passed
the "Punjab Termination of Agreement Act
2004", which declared earlier agreements null
and void.
Geography and wildlife
The catchment area of the river, especially till its touches the plains, is replete with
Alpine, semi alpine, temperate and sub-tropical vegetation, and vast areas are
under forest over, and supports extensive animal life.
Yamuna is the frontier of the Asian Elephant. West of the Yamuna, there are no
elephants to be found over 900 km of the western Himalayas and their foothills. The
forests of the lower Yamuna offer ideal corridors for elephant movement. The
principal forests to be found here are of sal , khair (acacia) , and sissoo (rosewood)
trees, and the Chir Pine forests of the Shivalik Hills.
The Narmada
The Narmada is a river in central India and the fifth largest river in the Indian
subcontinent. Narmada is a Sanskrit word meaning 'the Giver of Pleasure'[3]. It
forms the traditional boundary between North India and South India and flows
westwards over a length of 1,312 km (815.2 mi) before draining through the Gulf of
Cambey (Khambat) into the Arabian Sea, 30 km (18.6 mi) west of Bharuch city of
Gujarat.
It is one of only three major rivers in pensinsular India that runs from east to west
(largest west flowing river) along with the Tapti River and the Mahi River. It is the
only river in India that flows in a rift valley flowing west between the Satpura and
Vindhya ranges although the Tapti River and Mahi River also flow through rift valleys
but between different ranges.
It flows through the states of Madhya Pradesh (1,077 km (669.2 mi)), Maharashtra,
(74 km (46.0 mi))– (35 km (21.7 mi)) border between Madhya Pradesh and
Maharashtra and (39 km (24.2 mi) border between Madhya Pradesh and Gujarat and
in Gujarat (161 km (100.0 mi)).
The source of the Narmada is a small tank called Narmada Kund located on the
Amarkantak hill (1,057 m (3,467.8 ft)), in the Shahdol District of eastern Madhya
Pradesh. The river descends from the Amarkantak hill range at the Kapildhara falls
over a cliff and meanders in the hills flowing through a tortuous course crossing
the rocks and islands up to the ruined palace of Ramnagar. Between Ramnagar
and Mandla, (25 km (15.5 mi)), further southeast, the course is comparatively
straight with deep water devoid of rocky obstacles.
The Banger joins from the left. The river then runs
north–east in a narrow loop towards Jabalpur. Close to
this city, after a fall of some (9 m (29.5 ft)), called the
Dhuandhara, the fall of mist, it flows for (3 km
(1.9 mi)), in a deep narrow channel through the
magnesium limestone and basalt rocks called the
Marble Rocks; from a width of about 90 m (295.3 ft),
above, it is compressed in this channel of (18 m
(59.1 ft)), only. Beyond this point up to its meeting the
Arabian Sea, the Narmada enters three narrow valleys
between the Vindhya scarps in the north and the
Satpura range in the South. The southern extension of
the valley is wider at most places. These three valley
sections are separated by the closely approaching line
of the scarps and the Satpura hills.
Emerging from the Marble Rocks the river enters its first fertile basin, which extends
about 320 km (198.8 mi), with an average width of 35 km (21.7 mi), in the south. In
the north, the valley is limited to the Barna–Bareli plain terminating at Barkhara hills
opposite Hoshangabad.
However, the hills again recede in the Kannod plains. The banks are about (12 m
(39.4 ft)) high. It is in the first valley of the Narmada that many of its important
tributaries from the south join it and bring the waters of the northern slopes of the
Satpura hills. Among them are: the Sher, the Shakkar, the Dudhi, the Tawa (biggest
tributary) & the Ganjal. The Hiran, the Barna, the Choral, the Karam and the Lohar are
the important tributaries joining from the north.
Below Handia and Nemawar to Hiran fall (the deer's leap), the river is approached by
hills from both sides. In this stretch the character of the river is varied. The
Omkareshwar island, sacred to the Lord Shiva, is the most important river island in
Madhya Pradesh.
At first, the descent is rapid and the stream,
quickening in pace, rushes over a barrier of
rocks. The Sikta and the Kaveri join it below
the Khandwa plain. At two points, at Mandhar,
about40 km (24.9 mi), below Nemawar, and
Dadrai, 40 km (24.9 mi), further down near
Punasa, the river falls over a height of about
12 m (39.4 ft).
A few kilometres further down near Bareli and the crossing ghat of the Agra to
Mumbai road, National Highway No 3, the Narmada enters the Mandleshwar
plain, the second basin about 180 km (111.8 mi) long and 65 km (40.4 mi) wide in
the south. The northern strip of the basin is only 25 km (15.5 mi).
The second valley section is broken only by
Saheshwar Dhara fall. The early course of
about 125 km (77.7 mi) up to Markari falls is
met with a succession of cataracts and rapids
from the elevated table land of Malwa to the
low level of Gujarat plain. Towards the west of
this basin, the hills draw very close but soon
dwindle down.
Below Makrai, the river flows between Vadodara district and Narmada district
and then meanders through the rich plain of Bharuch district of Gujarat state. The
banks are high between the layers of old alluvial deposits, hardened mud, gravels
of nodular limestone and sand. The width of the river spans from about 1.5 km
(0.9 mi) at Makrai to 3 km (1.9 mi) near Bharuch and to an estuary of 21 km
(13.0 mi) at the Gulf of Khambat.
An old channel of the river, 1 km (0.6 mi) to
2 km (1.2 mi) south from the present one, is
very clear below Bharuch. The Karanjan and
the Orsing are the most important tributaries
in the original course. The former joins at
Rundh and the latter at Vyas in Vadodara
district of Gujarat, opposite each other and
form a Triveni (confluence of three rivers) on
the Narmada. The Amaravati and the Bhukhi
are other tributaries of significance. Opposite
the mouth of the Bhukhi is a large drift called
Alia Bet or Kadaria Bet.
The tidal rise is felt up to 32 km (19.9 mi) above Bharuch, where the neap tides
rise to about a metre and spring tide 3.5 m (11.5 ft). The river is navigable for
vessels of the burthen of 95 tonnes (i.e., 380 Bombay candies) up to Bharuch and
for vessels up to 35 tonnes (140 Bombay candies) up to Shamlapitha or Ghangdia.
The small vessels (10 tonnes) voyage up to Tilakawada in Gujarat.
There are sand bases and
shoals at mouth and at
Bharuch. The nearby
island of Kabirvad, in the
Narmada River, features a
gigantic Banyan tree,
which
covers
10,000 square metres (2.5
acres).
Narmada basin
The Narmada basin, hemmed between
Vindya and Satpuda ranges, extends over
an area of 98,796 km2 (38,145.3 sq mi) and
lies between east longitudes 72 degrees
32' to 81 degrees 45' and north latitudes
21 degrees 20' to 23 degrees 45' lying on
the northern extremity of the Deccan
Plateau. The basin covers large areas in the
states of Madhya Pradesh (86%), Gujarat
(14%) and a comparatively smaller area
(2%) in Maharashtra. In the river course of
1,312 km (815.2 mi) explained above,
there are 41 triburaries, out of which 22
are from the Satpuda range and the rest
on the right bank are from the Vindhya
range.
The basin has five well defined physiographic regions. They are:(1) The upper
hilly areas covering the districts of Shahdol, Mandla, Durg, Balaghat and Seoni,
(2) The upper plains covering the districts of Jabalpur, Narsimhapur, Sagar,
Damoh, Chhindwara, Hoshangabad, Betul, Raisen and Sehore, (3) The middle
plains covering the districts of East Nimar, part of west Nimar, Dewas, Indore and
Dhar, (4) The lower hilly areas covering part of the west Nimar, Jhabua, Dhulia,
Narmada and parts of Vadodara, and (5) the lower plains covering mainly the
districts of Narmada Bharuch, and parts of Vadodara.
The hill regions are well forested. The
upper, middle and lower plains are
broad and fertile areas, well suited for
cultivation. The Narmada basin
mainly consists of black soils. The
coastal plains in Gujarat are
composed of alluvial clays with a layer
of black soils on the surface.
The valley experiences extremes of hydrometeorological and climatic conditions with the
upper catchment having an annual precipitation in
the range of1,000 mm (3.3 ft) to 1,850 mm (6.1 ft)
and with half or even less than half in its lower
regions (650 mm (2.1 ft)–750 mm (2.5 ft)); the
diversity of vegetation from lushgreen in the
upper region to dry deciduous teak forest
vegetation in the lower region is testimony to this
feature.
The Irrigation Commission
(1972) identified the Narmada
basin in Madhya Pradesh as
drought affected and a large
part
of
North
Gujarat,
Saurashtra and Kutch as semiarid or arid scarcity regions on
account
of
extreme
unreliability
of
rainfall,
rendering them ‘chronically’
drought prone and subject to
serious
drinking
water
problems.