Download Chapters 1 and 2

Chapter 2
Physical & Data-Link Layers
Professor Rick Han
University of Colorado at Boulder
[email protected]
Announcements
• Textbooks: Computer Networks, by Peterson
and Davie
•
•
CU book store’s order has arrived
Read Chapter 1, start Chapter 2, sections 2.1-2.8,
skip Section 2.9 Network Adaptors
• Larger classroom – maybe…
• Lectures will be online a few days after each
class
•
Follow the Lectures link on class Web site
• Homework #1 will be handed out next class
• Next, Chapter 2
Prof. Rick Han, University of
Colorado at Boulder
The Layered Network Stack
Application Layer
OSI Stack
Internet Stack
Presentation Layer
Application Layer
Session Layer
Transport Layer (TCP/UDP)
Transport Layer
Network Layer (IP)
Network Layer
Data Link Layer
Data Link Layer
Physical Layer
Prof. Rick Han, University of
Colorado at Boulder
Physical Layer
Layer 1: The Physical Layer
• Host A encodes the bit into an analog signal.
Host B decodes the analog signal into a
received bit.
Host A
“1” or “0”
over wire
Prof. Rick Han, University of
Colorado at Boulder
Host B
Encoding: Mapping Bits to
Analog Waveforms
• “1” -> +5 volts, “0” -> -5 volts on copper wire
Amplitude •
light intensity on optical fiber
1 0
0
1
1 0
+5
time
-5
+5 -5
-5
+5
+5
-5
• Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM) encodes
bits as diff. levels. NRZ is special case.
• Manchester encodes bits as diff. transitions
• FSK (Frequency Shift Key) encodes bits as
diff. frequencies.
Prof. Rick1200
Han, University
bps
of modems.
Colorado at Boulder
Sending More Bits Per Second
• Can reduce the size of time slot
•
•
Widely used
Limitation: smearing of the waveforms and
noise limit the maximum bit rate (Shannon’s
capacity theorem)
• Square wave is sum of many different
frequency components. [analogy: stereo signal]
• High frequencies get attenuated in wire,
thereby smearing the waveform
•
Reducing time slots causes more “smear” from
previous slot to interfere with current slot:
InterSymbol Interference (ISI)
Prof. Rick Han, University of
Colorado at Boulder
Sending More Bits Per Second (2)
• Can send more bits per time
slot using multi-level D/A
converter
•
•
8 discrete levels
“111” -> +7 V, …, “000” -> -7 V
• …100110… -> +1, +5, …
Symbols
• 3 bits per symbol
Prof. Rick Han, University of
Colorado at Boulder
111
110
101
100
011
010
001
000
+7 V
+5
+3
+1
-1
-3
-5
-7
Sending More Bits Per Second (3)
• Transmit a sequence of
symbols: S1=+1, S2=+5, S3, …
•
111
110
• Baud rate = Symbols/sec
If baud rate is 1 symbol/sec, 101
then bit rate = 3 bits/sec
100
• Tripled the bit rate!
011
• Limitations: noise
010
001
000
• Datam(t)=Sm(t)*SqWv(t-mT)
Where Sm(t) is the level of m’th symbol, T= duration
of each symbol, t=time,
is square wave
Prof. Rick Han,SqWv
University of
Colorado at Boulder
+7 V
+5
+3
+1
-1
-3
-5
-7
Sending More Bits Per Second (4)
• Can send more bits over different
frequencies, [analogy: AM/FM]
•
•
Modulate Sm(t) up to 3000 Hz, demodulate down
Datam(t) = Sm(t)*cos(2p3000t) + S’m(t)*cos
(2p6000t)
[simplified: sq wave not shown]
• Can send more bits over the same frequency!
•
•
•
Datam(t) = Sm(t)*cos(2p3000t) + S’m(t)*sin
(2p3000t)
This is called Quadrature Amplitude Modulation
(QAM).
If Sm(t), and S’m(t) both have 4 levels, then this
is called 16-QAM. 9600 bps modems use this.
Baud?
Prof. Rick Han, University of
Colorado at Boulder
Physical Layer Effects
• Goal: maximize the Signal-to-Noise ratio
(SNR) to minimize the probability of bit error,
then pass the bit up to Data-Link Layer
• Unreliability:
•
•
due to“Smearing”, Interference, … (Wireless:
shadowing, multi-path, doppler, …)
Apply advanced adaptive filtering and digital signal
processing (DSP) to improve SNR
• Propagation Delay
•
Speed of light c = 3x108 m/s
•
Satellite links have long prop. delays (~120 ms oneway)
Prof. Rick Han, <400
University ms
of
Interactivity requires
roundtrip
Colorado at Boulder
•
•
Over copper wires, propagation speed is 2/3 of c
Layer 2: The Data Link Layer
• Next Problem: How do I send a message from
Host A to Host B?
1011000…?
Host A
Host B
• Data Link Layer, also called Layer 2, ensures
that host B can decode a digital message
from a stream of bits sent by host A
• Examples: PPP (Point-to-Point Protocol),
HDLC, LAPB, LAPD,
Frame
Prof. Rick Han,
University ofRelay, …
Colorado at Boulder
The Data Link Layer (cont.)
• A
•
•
•
•
Data Link Layer Protocol implements:
Delimiting/framing of a message
Fragmenting of a long message
Retransmission of a lost message
…
1011000
Host A
Host B
Prof. Rick Han, University of
Colorado at Boulder
Defining a Protocol
• A protocol is an agreement between two
parties or endpoints as to how information is
to be transmitted
• A protocol implements this agreement via:
• A Header
• How each endpoint responds to control info
in the header (& external input)
1011000
Host A
Host B
Prof. Rick Han, University of
Colorado at Boulder
Framing
Receiver’s
A/D: …0110011011011000100110100001110001001…
• Where is the start of the data?
• Where is the end of the data?
• Use a special flag to signal the start (and
end) of packet data, e.g. flag = “1001101”
•
“Sentinel” approach – flags act as sentinels
•
•
Character stuffing for byte-oriented protocols
Bit stuffing for bit-oriented protocols
• What if this flag appears in the data?
Prof. Rick Han, University of
Colorado at Boulder
Character/Byte Stuffing
• BiSync and PPP (common over modems)
• Data is divided into 8-bit bytes
• Byte boundaries synchronized btwn sender
and receiver
• Define a special start-of-packet N-byte flag,
e.g. let flag be X (one byte flag)
•
•
•
Data:
Stuff X in data: replace X with escape character
“E” (DLE in textbook) and X, i.e X -> (E, X)
Stuff E in data: replace E with (E, E)
At rcvr, first X is start of packet (variants exist)
AKLWXIKKEZLXKDKLEXYBE
Prof. Rick Han, University of
Send:XAKLWEXIKKEEZLEXKDKLEEEXYBEEX
Colorado at Boulder
Bit Stuffing
…01001000001111110000001110001001…
• HDLC uses this
• Similar to byte stuffing, except bit stuffing
is not confined to byte boundaries
• HDLC denotes beginning and end of a
packet/frame with “01111110” flag
• Since “01111110” may occur anywhere (across
byte boundaries) in data, stuff it:
•
•
At sender, after 5 consecutive ones, insert a “0”
At receiver, “0111110” => stuffing, so destuff,
“01111110” => end of frame, “01111111” => error
Prof. Rick Han, University of
Colorado at Boulder
Byte Counting
• Deduce End-of-Packet with a length field in
the header, rather than explicit sentinel flag
•
…010010000000000100000011100010010…
Start-of-Packet
length
data
•
Length = 2 bytes
•
Bit corruption in header and start-of-packet
usually catastrophic
Bit corruption can also occur in data
• Limitation: the length field could be corrupted
by a transmission bit error, due to noise, etc.
•
• How do we handle errors caused by bit
corruption?
Prof. Rick Han, University of
Colorado at Boulder
Error Detection
• Simple technique: Send two copies of data in
addition to the data, and then do majority
logic decoding at the receiver
Original data: 0100
Send: 0100 0100 0100
•
•
•
Receiver: 0100
0110
0100
Decode: 0100
Corrupt
Bit
Inefficient
Two errors in the same bit => cannot detect error,
• 0100 0110 0110 -> 0110 [Error]
so each technique has some probability of error
Prof. Rick Han, University of
Colorado at Boulder
Error Detection (2)
• General technique: Add redundancy to the
data and use this redundancy to detect bit
errors
•
…01001000000000010011010100000011100010010…
Start-of-Packet
length
err. det.
•
data
The error detection field can be computed over
the data only, the header only (IP) or both (TCP)
• Can be located in header or at end of packet
• The error detection field is also called a Cyclic
Redundancy Check (CRC)
• Most link-layer protocols use CRC’s for error
detection, e.g. HDLC, PPP
• A checksum is a special case of a CRC where the
Prof. Rick
Han, University
of addition
CRC is computed
using
binary
Colorado at Boulder
Error Detection (3)
• The Internet checksum:
•
•
•
•
Divide your data into 16-bit segments
Add each of the 16-bit segments, using one’s
complement binary addition
One’s complement of the final sum is your 16-bit
IP checksum
Send IP checksum with the IP packet
• An alternative checksum: XOR instead of
one’s complement
• Checksum’s are relatively weak compared to
CRC’s but are easy to compute
•
A bit error twice in the same offset position
within the 16-bit segment will go undetected
Prof. Rick Han, University of
Colorado at Boulder
Probability of Packet Error
• Suppose N bits are sent, and the link is
independently corrupting each bit with some
probability of bit error pb. What is the
probability of packet error?
•
•
Prob[packet error] = Prob[at least 1 bit is corrupt]
= 1 – Prob[every bit is clean]
= 1-(1- pb)N
If pb =10-6, and N=10000 bits, then
Prob[packet error] = 9.95*10-3 ~= 1%
• Optical links have much lower probabilities of
bit error: 10–12
• Wireless links have much higher probabilities
-3 in fades [send small packets]
of bit error: 10Prof.
Rick Han, University of
Colorado at Boulder
Error Correction
• Forward Error Correction (FEC):
•
•
•
•
•
Rather than just detect a bit error, correct a bit
error
Add K bits of redundancy to N bits, to form a
(N+K)-bit long packet, or vector
N dimensions -> N+K dimensions
2N patterns or vectors mapped into 2N+K
possibilities
Spread out these vectors as far away from
neighbors as possible in (N+K)-dimensional space
11
11111
• N=2, K=3, N+K=5
10
01010
• Receive 01111 - closest
01
10101
to 11111, so decode “11”
Prof. Rick Han, University of 00
00000
and correct one bit error
Colorado at Boulder