Download 3rd Edition: Chapter 4

Chapter 4 Network
Layer (4b - Routing)
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Georgia Tech
for use in ECE3600
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All material copyright 1996-2006
J.F Kurose and K.W. Ross, All Rights Reserved
JAC 10-8-2013
Computer Networking:
A Top Down Approach
Featuring the Internet,
5th edition.
Jim Kurose, Keith Ross
Addison-Wesley, July
2009.
Network Layer
4-1
Chapter 4: Network Layer
 4. 1 Introduction
 4.2 Virtual circuit and
datagram networks
 4.3 What’s inside a
router
 4.4 IP: Internet
Protocol




Datagram format
IPv4 addressing
ICMP
IPv6
 4.5 Routing algorithms
 Link state (OSPF)
 Distance Vector (RIP)
 Hierarchical routing (BGP)
 4.6 Routing in the
Internet



RIP
OSPF
BGP
 4.7 Broadcast and
multicast routing
Network Layer
4-2
IP Addressing: introduction (review)
 IP address: 32-bit
identifier for host, and
router interface
 interface: connection
between host/router and
physical link (sometimes
called a "port").
 router’s typically have
multiple interfaces
 host typically has one
interface
 IP addresses associated
with each interface
223.1.1.1
223.1.2.1
223.1.1.2
223.1.1.4
223.1.1.3
223.1.2.9
223.1.3.27
223.1.2.2
223.1.3.2
223.1.3.1
223.1.1.1 = 11011111 00000001 00000001 00000001
223
1
1
Network Layer
1
4-3
Subnets (review)
 IP address:
 subnet part (high
order bits)
 host part (low order
bits)
 What’s a subnet ?
 device interfaces with
same subnet part of IP
address
 can physically reach
each other without
intervening router
223.1.1.1
223.1.2.1
223.1.1.2
223.1.1.4
223.1.1.3
223.1.2.9
223.1.3.27
223.1.2.2
subnet
223.1.3.1
223.1.3.2
network consisting of 3 subnets
Network Layer
4-4
Subnets (review)
Recipe
 To determine the
subnets, detach each
interface from its
gateway (default)
router, creating
islands of isolated
networks. Each
isolated network is
called a subnet.
223.1.1.0/24
223.1.2.0/24
223.1.3.0/24
Subnet mask: /24
Network Layer
4-5
Subnets
Stub Subnet ->
223.1.1.0/24
How many?
223.1.1.2
223.1.1.1
223.1.1.4
223.1.1.3
223.1.9.2
223.1.7.0
<-Transit Subnet
223.1.7.0/28
Transit Subnet ->
223.1.9.0/28
223.1.8.0/28
223.1.9.1
223.1.8.1
223.1.8.0
223.1.2.6
Stub Subnet ->
223.1.2.0/24
223.1.2.1
223.1.7.1
223.1.3.27
223.1.2.2
223.1.3.1
Stub Subnet ->
223.1.3.0/24
223.1.3.2
Network Layer
4-6
Simplified Network
Stub Subnet
223.1.1.0/24
B
A-B
B-C
A
C
A-C
Transit Subnet
223.1.9.0/28
B
Transit Subnet
223.1.7.0/28
A
C
Stub Subnet
223.1.2.0/24
Transit Subnet
223.1.8.0/28
Stub Subnet
223.1.3.0/24
Routers ("Nodes") designated by a letter: A, B, C, ...
All subnets are either*:
Transit Subnets ("Links" between nodes: A-B, B-C, A-C)
or
Stub Subnets (connected to a single "gateway" router)
designated by the same letter: A, B, C, ...
* simplifying assumption made here.
Network Layer
4-7
Interplay between routing, forwarding
routing algorithm
Routing Table for Node A
Network Address
Network Mask
Port (A- )
223.1.1.0
255.255.255.0
B
223.1.2.0
255.255.255.0
Local
223.1.3.0
255.255.255.0
C
Destination address (IPd) in arriving
packet’s IP header
223.1.3.123
Match row "i" if:
IPd & Maski = NetAddri
Use match with largest Maski.
A
B
A-B
1
3 2
A-D
A-C
C
D
Network Layer
4-8
Graph abstraction
"Cost" of Link
5
2
u
3
v
2
1
Graph: G = (N,E)
N = set of routers = { u, v, w, x, y, z }
x
w
3
1
5
z
1
y
2
(Nodes)
E = set of links ={ (u,v), (u,x), (v,x), (v,w), (x,w), (x,y), (w,y), (w,z), (y,z) } (Edges)
Remark: Graph abstraction is useful in other network contexts
Example: P2P, where N is set of peers and E is set of TCP connections
Network Layer
4-9
Graph abstraction: costs
5
2
u
v
2
1
x
• c(x,x’) = cost of link (x,x’)
3
w
3
1
5
z
1
y
- e.g., c(w,z) = 5
2
• cost could always be 1, or
inversely related to bandwidth,
or inversely related to
congestion
Cost of path (x1, x2, x3,…, xp) = c(x1,x2) + c(x2,x3) + … + c(xp-1,xp)
Question: What’s the least-cost path between u and z ?
Routing algorithm: algorithm that finds least-cost path
Network Layer 4-10
Routing Algorithm classification
Global or decentralized
information?
Global (e.g., OSPF):
 all routers have complete
topology, link cost info
 “link state” algorithms
Decentralized (e.g., RIP):
 router knows physicallyconnected neighbors, link
costs to neighbors
 iterative process of
computation, exchange of
info with neighbors
 “distance vector”
algorithms
Static or dynamic?
Static (Manual updates):
 routes change slowly
over time
Dynamic (RIP, OSPF):
 routes change more
quickly
 periodic update
 in response to link
cost changes
Network Layer
4-11
A Link-State Routing Algorithm
(OSPF)
Dijkstra’s algorithm
 net topology, link costs
known to all nodes
 accomplished via “link
state broadcast”
 all nodes have same info
 computes least cost paths
from one node (‘source”)
to all other nodes
 gives forwarding table
for that node
 iterative: after k
iterations, know least cost
path to k dest.’s
Notation:
 c(x,y): link cost from node
x to y; = ∞ if not direct
neighbors
 D(v): current value of cost
of path from source to
dest. v
 p(v): predecessor node
along path from source to v
 N': set of nodes whose
least cost path definitively
known
Network Layer 4-12
Dijsktra’s Algorithm
1 Initialization:
2 N' = {u}
3 for all nodes v
4
if v adjacent to u
5
then D(v) = c(u,v)
6
else D(v) = ∞
7
8 Loop
9 find w not in N' such that D(w) is a minimum
10 add w to N'
11 update D(v) for all v adjacent to w and not in N' :
12
D(v) = min( D(v), D(w) + c(w,v) )
13 /* new cost to v is either old cost to v or known
14 shortest path cost to w plus cost from w to v */
15 until all nodes in N'
Network Layer 4-13
Dijkstra’s algorithm: example (for "u") - 1
5
2
u
v
2
1
x
3
w
3
1
5
z
1
y
2
Permanent Nodes: u (start with home node)
Temporary Nodes: v(u,2), x(u,1), w(u,5)
(linked to a permanent node, path cost in ()s)
New Permanent Node: x(u,2) (lowest-cost path to u)
New Permanent Link: u-x
Delete Links: (from new permanent node to any
permanent node, other than the New Permanent Link)
Network Layer 4-14
Dijkstra’s algorithm: example (for "u") - 2
5
2
u
v
2
1
x
3
w
3
1
5
z
1
y
2
Permanent Nodes: u(0), x(2)
Temporary Nodes: v(u,2 or x,3), y(x,2), w(x,4 or u,5)
New Permanent Node: v(u,2)
New Permanent Link: v-u
Delete Link: v-x
Note: You can wait to delete (all non-permanent) links
after the tree is complete.
Network Layer 4-15
Dijkstra’s algorithm: example (for "u") - 3
5
2
u
v
2
1
x
3
w
3
1
5
z
1
y
2
Permanent Nodes: u, x(1), v(2)
Temporary Nodes: y(x,2), w(y,3 or x,4 or v,5)
New Permanent Node: y(x,2)
New Permanent Link: x-y
Delete Link: none
Network Layer 4-16
Dijkstra’s algorithm: example (for "u") - 4
5
2
u
v
2
1
x
3
w
3
1
5
z
1
y
2
Permanent Nodes: u, x(1), v(2), y(2)
Temporary Nodes: w(y,3 or x,4 or v,5 or u,5), z(y,4)
New Permanent Node: w(y,3)
New Permanent Link: w-y
Delete Links: w-x, w-v, w-u
Network Layer 4-17
Dijkstra’s algorithm: example (for "u") - 5
5
2
u
v
2
1
x
3
w
3
1
5
z
1
y
2
Permanent Nodes: u, x(1), v(2), y(2), w(3)
Temporary Nodes: z(y,4 or w,8)
New Permanent Node: z(y,4)
New Permanent Link: y-z
Delete Link: z-w
This is called the "shortest-path tree", or
"sink tree," for node u.
Network Layer 4-18
Dijkstra’s algorithm: example (2)
Resulting shortest-path tree from u:
v
w
u
z
x
Resulting forwarding table in u:
destination
link
v
x
(u,v)
(u,x)
y
(u,x)
w
(u,x)
z
(u,x)
Two-step process based on
information received by
broadcast OSPF messages
from every router.
1.
Construct a table of all
advertised blocks and
the edge router which
connects to them.
2.
Add link to forward on
for each edge router,
based on the routing
algorithm.
y
Network Layer 4-19
Graphical Method - Sink Tree
for Node "U"
(animated - keep clicking)
5 (link cost)
2 2
5 (total cost)
3
v
w
5
4
3
u
3
2
1
x
2
1
8
1
3
1
5
z
4
y
2
Next Slide
Network Layer 4-20
Chapter 4: Network Layer
 4. 1 Introduction
 4.2 Virtual circuit and
datagram networks
 4.3 What’s inside a
router
 4.4 IP: Internet
Protocol




Datagram format
IPv4 addressing
ICMP
IPv6
 4.5 Routing algorithms
 Link state (OSPF)
 Distance Vector (RIP)
 Hierarchical routing
 4.6 Routing in the
Internet



RIP
OSPF
BGP
 4.7 Broadcast and
multicast routing
Network Layer 4-21
Distance Vector Algorithm (RIP)
Bellman-Ford Equation (dynamic programming)
Define
dx(y) := cost of least-cost path from x to y
Then
dx(y) = min {c(x,v) + dv(y) }
where min is taken over all neighbors v of x.
v
This is the distance to y advertised by x.
x will forward datagrams for y to v.
Network Layer 4-22
Bellman-Ford algorithm example
Find forwarding link for u to z when the cost
to neighbors is known, c(u,?), and the
cost from neighbors to z, d?(z) is known.
5
2
u
3
v
2
1
w
3
x
1
5
z
1
2
y
The way u sees the network.
5
2
u
1
v
w
5
3
Known:, dv(z) = 5, dx(z) = 3, dw(z) = 3
B-F equation says:
du(z) = min { c(u,v) + dv(z),
c(u,x) + dx(z),
c(u,w) + dw(z) }
= min {2 + 5,
1 + 3,
z
5 + 3} = 4 ( -> x)
x
3
Node that provides minimum distance (node x) is next
hop in shortest path to z, ➜ forwarding tableNetwork Layer
4-23
Distance Vector Algorithm
 Dx(y) = estimate of least cost from x to y
 Node x knows cost to each neighbor v:
c(x,v)
 Node x maintains distance vector Dx =
[Dx(y): y є N ]
 Node x also maintains its neighbors’
distance vectors
 For
each neighbor v, x maintains
Dv = [Dv(y): y є N ]
Network Layer 4-24
Distance vector algorithm (4)
Basic idea:
 Each node periodically sends its own distance
vector estimate to neighbors
 When a node x receives new DV estimate from
neighbor, it updates its own DV using B-F*
equation:
Dx(y) ← minv{c(x,v) + Dv(y)} for each node y ∊ N
 Under minor changes, natural conditions, the
estimated Dx(y) converges to the actual least cost
dx(y)
 *B-F is “Bellman-Ford”
Network Layer 4-25
Distance Vector Algorithm (5)
Iterative, asynchronous:
each local iteration caused
by:
 local link cost change
 DV update message from
neighbor
Distributed:
 each node notifies
neighbors only when its DV
changes

neighbors then notify
their neighbors if
necessary
Each node:
wait for (change in local link
cost or msg from neighbor)
recompute estimates
if DV to any dest has
changed, notify neighbors
Network Layer 4-26
Dx(y) = min{c(x,y) + Dy(y), c(x,z) + Dz(y)}
= min{2+0 , 7+1} = 2
node x table
cost to
x y z
x ∞∞ ∞
y ∞∞ ∞
z 71 0
from
from
from
from
x 0 2 7
y 2 0 1
z 7 1 0
cost to
x y z
x 0 2 7
y 2 0 1
z 3 1 0
x 0 2 3
y 2 0 1
z 3 1 0
cost to
x y z
x 0 2 3
y 2 0 1
z 3 1 0
x
2
y
7
1
z
cost to
x y z
from
from
from
x ∞ ∞ ∞
y 2 0 1
z ∞∞ ∞
node z table
cost to
x y z
x 0 2 3
y 2 0 1
z 7 1 0
cost to
x y z
cost to
x y z
from
from
x 0 2 7
y ∞∞ ∞
z ∞∞ ∞
node y table +
cost to
x y z
cost to
x y z
Dx(z) = min{c(x,y) +
Dy(z), c(x,z) + Dz(z)}
= min{2+1 , 7+0} = 3
x 0 2 3
y 2 0 1
z 3 1 0
time
Network Layer 4-27
Distance Vector: link cost changes
Link cost changes:
 node detects local link cost change
 updates routing info, recalculates
distance vector
 if DV changes, notify neighbors
“good
news
travels
fast”
1
x
4
y
50
1
z
At time t0, y detects the link-cost change, updates its DV,
and informs its neighbors.
At time t1, z receives the update from y and updates its table.
It computes a new least cost to x and sends its neighbors its DV.
At time t2, y receives z’s update and updates its distance table.
y’s least costs do not change and hence y does not send any
message to z.
Network Layer 4-28
Distance Vector: link cost changes
Link cost changes:
 good news travels fast
 bad news travels slow -
“count to infinity” problem!
 44 iterations before
algorithm stabilizes: see
text
Poisoned reverse:
 If Z routes through Y to
get to X :

Z tells Y its (Z’s) distance
to X is infinite (so Y won’t
route to X via Z)
 will this completely solve
count to infinity problem?
60
x
4
y
50
1
z
Y advertises X in 4 hops
Z sends datagrams for X to Y
Z advertises "X in 5 hops".
Y-X link cost goes to 60
Y thinks Z can route in 5 hops,
so Y advertises "X in 6", sends
datagrams back to Z.
Z sends datagrams back to Y,
advertises "X in 7".
Y sends datagrams back to Z,
advertises "X in 8".
Network Layer 4-29
RIP (Distance-Vector Algorithm)
B
130.207.0.0/16
5 hops
M
209.196.0.0/16
4 hops
24.56.0.0/16
128.230.0.0/16
N
Router A Table
Prefix
Distance Port
128.230.
2
X
130.207.
6
N
209.196.
7
X
24.56.
9
X
A
X
C
P
Router B Table
Prefix
Distance Port
128.230.
2
X
130.207.
6
X
209.196.
5
M
24.56.
11
X
10 hops
Router C Table
Prefix
Distance Port
128.230.
2
X
130.207.
4
X
209.196.
7
X
24.56.
11
P
Construct the Routing Table for Router X. Use "L" for the port to the local LAN.
Router X Table
Prefix
Distance Port
01
128.230.
L
130.207.
5
C
209.196.
6
B
24.56.
10
A
Using Poison Reverse, construct the Updates sent from Router X to A, B, and C. (infinity -> 15).
Update X to A Table
Prefix
Distance
128.230.
1
130.207.
5
209.196.
6
24.56.
15
Update X to B Table
Prefix
Distance
128.230.
1
130.207.
5
209.196.
15
24.56.
10
“Poison Reverse” prevents “ping-pong” routes.
Update X to C Table
Prefix
Distance
128.230.
1
130.207.
15
209.196.
6
24.56.
10
Network Layer 4-30
Comparison of LS (OSPF) and DV (RIP) algorithms
LS = Link State, DV = Distance Vector)
Message complexity
 LS: with n nodes, E links,
O(nE) msgs sent
 DV: exchange between
neighbors only
 convergence time varies
Speed of Convergence
 LS: O(n2) algorithm requires
O(nE) msgs
 may have oscillations
 DV: convergence time varies
 may be routing loops
 count-to-infinity problem
Robustness: what happens if
router malfunctions?
LS:


DV:


node can advertise incorrect
link cost
each node computes only its
own table
DV node can advertise
incorrect path cost
each node’s table used by
others
• errors propagate thru the
network
Network Layer 4-31
Chapter 4: Network Layer
 4. 1 Introduction
 4.2 Virtual circuit and
datagram networks
 4.3 What’s inside a
router
 4.4 IP: Internet
Protocol




Datagram format
IPv4 addressing
ICMP
IPv6
 4.5 Routing algorithms
 Link state
 Distance Vector
 Hierarchical routing
 4.6 Routing in the
Internet



RIP
OSPF
BGP
 4.7 Broadcast and
multicast routing
Network Layer 4-32
Hierarchical Routing
Our routing study thus far - idealization
 all routers identical
 network “flat”
… not true in practice
scale: with 200 million
destinations:
 can’t store all dest’s in
routing tables!
 routing table exchange
would swamp links!
administrative autonomy
 internet = network of
networks
 each network admin may
want to control routing in its
own network
Network Layer 4-33
Hierarchical Routing
BGP - Border Gateway Protocol
 aggregate routers into
regions, “autonomous
systems” (AS)
 routers in same AS run
same routing protocol [no,
hierarchical architectures
are possible]


Gateway router
 Direct link to router in
another AS
“intra-AS” routing
protocol
routers in different AS
can run different intraAS routing protocol
Network Layer 4-34
Interconnected ASes
3c
3a
3b
AS3
1a
2a
1c
1b
1d
2c
AS2
AS1
OSPF
 Forwarding table is
BGP
Intra-AS
Routing
algorithm
2b
Inter-AS
Routing
algorithm
Forwarding
table
BGP for “which Internet gateway” (1b or 1c)
configured by both
intra- and inter-AS
routing algorithm


Intra-AS sets entries
for internal dests
Inter-AS & Intra-As
sets entries for
external dests
Network Layer 4-35
Inter-AS tasks
AS1 needs:
1. to learn which dests
are reachable through
AS2 and which
through AS3
2. to propagate this
reachability info to all
routers in AS1
Job of inter-AS routing!
 Suppose router in AS1
receives datagram for
which destination is
outside of AS1

Router should forward
packet towards one of
the gateway routers,
but which one?
3c
3b
3a
AS3
1a
2a
1c
1d
1b
2c
AS2
2b
AS1
Network Layer 4-36
Example: Setting forwarding table in router 1d
 Suppose AS1 learns (via inter-AS protocol) that subnet
x is reachable via AS3 (gateway 1c) but not via AS2.
 Inter-AS protocol propagates reachability info to all
internal routers.
 Router 1d determines from intra-AS routing info that
its interface I is on the least cost path to 1c.
 Puts in forwarding table entry (x,I).
X
3c
3a
3b
AS3
1a
2a
1c
1d
1b
2c
AS2
2b
AS1
Network Layer 4-37
Example: Choosing among multiple ASes
 Now suppose AS1 learns from the inter-AS protocol
that subnet x is reachable from AS3 and from AS2.
 To configure forwarding table, router 1d must
determine towards which gateway it should forward
packets for dest x.
 This is also the job on inter-AS routing protocol!
X
3c
3a
3b
AS3
1a
2a
1c
1d
1b
2c
AS2
2b
AS1
Network Layer 4-38
Example: Choosing among multiple ASes
 Now suppose AS1 learns from the inter-AS protocol
that subnet x is reachable from AS3 and from AS2.
 To configure forwarding table, router 1d must
determine towards which gateway it should forward
packets for dest x.
 This is also the job on inter-AS routing protocol!
 Hot potato routing: send packet towards closest of
two routers.
Learn from inter-AS
protocol that subnet
x is reachable via
multiple gateways
Use routing info
from intra-AS
protocol to determine
costs of least-cost
paths to each
of the gateways
Hot potato routing:
Choose the gateway
that has the
smallest least cost
Determine from
forwarding table the
interface I that leads
to least-cost gateway.
Enter (x,I) in
forwarding table
Network Layer 4-39
Chapter 4: Network Layer
 4. 1 Introduction
 4.2 Virtual circuit and
datagram networks
 4.3 What’s inside a
router
 4.4 IP: Internet
Protocol




Datagram format
IPv4 addressing
ICMP
IPv6
 4.5 Routing algorithms
 Link state
 Distance Vector
 Hierarchical routing
 4.6 Routing in the
Internet



RIP
OSPF
BGP
 4.7 Broadcast and
multicast routing
Network Layer 4-40
Intra-AS Routing
 Also known as Interior Gateway Protocols (IGP)
 Most common Intra-AS routing protocols:

RIP: Routing Information Protocol

OSPF: Open Shortest Path First

IGRP: Interior Gateway Routing Protocol (Cisco
proprietary)
Network Layer 4-41
Chapter 4: Network Layer
 4. 1 Introduction
 4.2 Virtual circuit and
datagram networks
 4.3 What’s inside a
router
 4.4 IP: Internet
Protocol




Datagram format
IPv4 addressing
ICMP
IPv6
 4.5 Routing algorithms
 Link state
 Distance Vector
 Hierarchical routing
 4.6 Routing in the
Internet



RIP (Distance Vector)
OSPF (Link State)
BGP (Hierarchical)
 4.7 Broadcast and
multicast routing
Network Layer 4-42
RIP ( Routing Information Protocol)
 Distance vector algorithm
 Included in BSD-UNIX Distribution in 1982
 Distance metric: # of hops (max = 15 hops)
From router A to subsets:
u
v
A
z
C
B
D
w
x
y
destination hops
u
1
v
2
w
2
x
3
y
3
z
2
Network Layer 4-43
RIP advertisements
 Distance vectors*: exchanged among
neighbors every 30 sec via Response
Message (also called advertisement)
 Each advertisement: list of up to 25
destination nets within AS
* List of all subnets and their "distance" (cost: delay, hops, …).
Network Layer 4-44
RIP: Example
y
x
w
A
z
6 hops
D
B
C
Destination Network
w
y
z
x
….
Next Router
Num. of hops to dest.
….
....
A
B
B
--
1
1
7
1
Routing table in D
Network Layer 4-45
RIP: Example
Dest
w
x
z
….
Next
B A
…
w
Routing Table for D
New Link
hops
1
1
7 5
...
A
3 hops
x
Destination Network
w
y
z
x
….
z
F
D
B
C
y
6 hops
Next Router
Num. of hops to dest.
….
....
A
B
B A
--
Routing table in D
2
2
7 5
1
Network Layer 4-46
RIP: Link Failure and Recovery
If no advertisement heard after 180 sec -->
neighbor/link declared dead
 routes via neighbor invalidated
 new advertisements sent to neighbors
 neighbors in turn send out new advertisements (if
tables changed)
 link failure info quickly (?) propagates to entire net
 poison reverse used to prevent ping-pong loops
(infinite distance = 15 hops)
Network Layer 4-47
RIP Table processing
 RIP routing tables managed by application-level
process called route-d (daemon)
 advertisements sent in UDP packets, periodically
repeated
routed
routed
Transprt
(UDP)
network
(IP)
link
physical
Transprt
(UDP)
forwarding
table
forwarding
table
network
(IP)
link
physical
Network Layer 4-48
Chapter 4: Network Layer
 4. 1 Introduction
 4.2 Virtual circuit and
datagram networks
 4.3 What’s inside a
router
 4.4 IP: Internet
Protocol




Datagram format
IPv4 addressing
ICMP
IPv6
 4.5 Routing algorithms
 Link state
 Distance Vector
 Hierarchical routing
 4.6 Routing in the
Internet



RIP
OSPF
BGP
 4.7 Broadcast and
multicast routing
Network Layer 4-49
OSPF (Open Shortest Path First)
 “open”: publicly available
 Uses Link State algorithm
 Link State packet dissemination
 Topology map at each node
 Route computation using Dijkstra’s algorithm
 OSPF advertisement carries one entry per neighbor
router (OSPF has it’s own Transport Layer Protocol)
 Advertisements disseminated to entire AS (via
flooding) [exception – Hierarchical Routing]

Carried in OSPF messages directly over IP (rather than TCP
or UDP
Network Layer 4-50
OSPF “advanced” features (not in RIP)
 Security: all OSPF messages authenticated (to




prevent malicious intrusion)
Multiple same-cost paths allowed (only one path in
RIP)
For each link, multiple cost metrics for different
TOS (e.g., satellite link cost set “low” for best
effort; high for real time)
Integrated uni- and multicast support:
 Multicast OSPF (MOSPF) uses same topology data
base as OSPF
Hierarchical OSPF in large domains.
Network Layer 4-51
Hierarchical OSPF
Boundary routers can
aggregate internal
routes.
Network Layer 4-52
Hierarchical OSPF
 Two-level hierarchy: local area, backbone.
Link-state advertisements only in area
 each nodes has detailed area topology; only know
direction (shortest path) to nets in other areas.
 Area border routers: “summarize” distances to
nets in own area, advertise to other Area Border
routers.
 Backbone routers: run OSPF routing limited to
backbone.
 Boundary routers: connect to other AS’s.

Network Layer 4-53
Chapter 4: Network Layer
 4. 1 Introduction
 4.2 Virtual circuit and
datagram networks
 4.3 What’s inside a
router
 4.4 IP: Internet
Protocol




Datagram format
IPv4 addressing
ICMP
IPv6
 4.5 Routing algorithms
 Link state
 Distance Vector
 Hierarchical routing
 4.6 Routing in the
Internet



RIP
OSPF
BGP
 4.7 Broadcast and
multicast routing
Network Layer 4-54
Internet inter-AS routing: BGP
 BGP (Border Gateway Protocol): the de
facto standard
 BGP provides each AS a means to:
1.
2.
3.
Obtain subnet reachability information from
neighboring ASs.
Propagate reachability information to all ASinternal routers.
Determine “good” routes to subnets based on
reachability information and policy.
 allows subnet to advertise its existence to
rest of Internet: “I am here”
Network Layer 4-55
Hurricane Electric Internet Services
http://bgp.he.net/
Cogent Comm.
Telesonera
GT-Fr.
GT-U.S.
Internet2
www.sox.net
Hurricane Electric
4-56
Southern Crossroads (Internet2)
4-57
BGP basics
 Pairs of routers (BGP peers) exchange routing info
over semi-permanent TCP connections: BGP sessions

BGP sessions need not correspond to physical links.
 When AS2 advertises a prefix to AS1, AS2 is
promising it will forward any datagrams destined to
that prefix towards the prefix.

AS2 can aggregate prefixes in its advertisement
3c
3a
3b
AS3
1a
AS1
2a
1c
1d
1b
2c
AS2
2b
eBGP session
iBGP session
Network Layer 4-58
Path attributes & BGP routes
 When advertising a prefix, advert includes BGP
attributes.

prefix + attributes = “route”
 When gateway router receives route advertisement,
uses import policy to accept/decline.
Network Layer 4-59
BGP route selection
 Router may learn about more than 1 route
to some prefix. Router must select route.
 Elimination rules:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Local preference value attribute: policy
decision
Shortest AS-PATH
Closest NEXT-HOP router: hot potato routing
Additional criteria
Network Layer 4-60
BGP routing policy
 A,B,C are provider networks
 X,W,Y are customer (of provider networks)
 X is dual-homed: attached to two networks
X does not want to route from B via X to C
 .. so X will not advertise to B a route to C

Network Layer 4-61
BGP routing policy (2)
 A advertises to B the path AW
 B advertises to X the path BAW
 Should B advertise to C the path BAW?
 No way! B gets no “revenue” for routing CBAW since neither
W nor C are B’s customers
 B wants to force C to route to w via A
 B wants to route only to/from its customers!
Network Layer 4-62
Why different Intra- and Inter-AS routing ?
Policy:
 Inter-AS: admin wants control over how its traffic
routed, who routes through its net.
 Intra-AS: single admin, so no policy decisions needed
Scale:
 hierarchical routing saves table size, reduced update
traffic
Performance:
 Intra-AS: can focus on performance
 Inter-AS: policy may dominate over performance
Network Layer 4-63
Area:
Lab, Home
Intra-AS (Ga.
Tech)
Inter-AS
Routing Type:
Distance Vector
Link State
Manual + Others
Example Protocol: RIP
OSPF, IGMP
BGP
Routing
Algorithm
Bellman-Ford, w
Poison Reverse
Dijkstra
Mixed
Cost Unit:
Links
Delay
Dollars, Policy,
Rules
Messaging:
UDP/IP unicast
OSPF/IP
TCP/IP unicast
broadcast (flood)
Adjust to
congestion:
No
Yes
Some places
Maximum Path:
path: <15 links
(nodes <25)
Large
Large
Hierarchical:
No
Can be
Yes (CIDR, AS
Confederations)
4-64
Chapter 4: Network Layer
 4. 1 Introduction
 4.2 Virtual circuit and
datagram networks
 4.3 What’s inside a
router
 4.4 IP: Internet
Protocol




Datagram format
IPv4 addressing
ICMP
IPv6
 4.5 Routing algorithms
 Link state
 Distance Vector
 Hierarchical routing
 4.6 Routing in the
Internet



RIP
OSPF
BGP
 4.7 Broadcast and
multicast routing
Network Layer 4-65
Uses for Broadcast and Multicast Routing
Broadcast – uses Network Broadcast Destination IP Address
(and Link-Layer all-1’s broadcast address)
Router (firewall) should block incoming broadcasts)
Printer tells everyone on the subnet it’s IP address, type, name, etc.
Host starting-up wants some DCHP server to assign an IP address
(initially uses 169.254.x.x random IP).
Multicast – service-specific destination IP in 224.0.0.0/4
(host using the service must open a listening socket)
224.0.0.5
224.0.0.13
224.0.0.251
224.255.255.250
OSPF Routers (OSPF Transmission-Layer Protocol)
PIM (multicast program or data distribution)
Multicast DNS (for hostname.local) (UDP port 5353)
SSDP – Simple Service Discovery Protocol
used by UPnP – Universal Plug & Plan
AT&T Uverse & Verizon FIOS TV programs (Channel No. -> IP Address)
Every host sees a Broadcast, hosts must subscribe to see a Multicast)
See http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multicast-address
Network Layer 4-66
Broadcast Routing
 Deliver packets from source to all other nodes
 Source duplication is inefficient:
duplicate
duplicate
creation/transmission
R1
R1
duplicate
R2
R2
R3
R4
source
duplication
R3
R4
in-network
duplication
 Source duplication: how does source
determine recipient addresses?
Network Layer 4-67
In-network duplication
 Flooding: when node receives brdcst pckt,
sends copy to all neighbors

Problems: cycles & broadcast storm
 Controlled flooding: node only broadcasts pkt
if it hasn’t broadcast the same packet before
Node keeps track of pckt ids already brdcsted
 Or reverse path forwarding (RPF): only forward
pckt if it arrived on shortest path between node
and source

 Spanning tree
 No redundant packets received by any node
Network Layer 4-68
Spanning Tree
 First construct a spanning tree
 Nodes forward copies only along spanning
tree
A
B
c
F
A
E
B
c
D
F
G
(a) Broadcast initiated at A
E
D
G
(b) Broadcast initiated at D
Network Layer 4-69
Multicast Routing: Problem Statement
The Internet Group Management Protocol (IGMP) is used by hosts and
adjacent routers on IP networks to establish multicast group memberships.
 Goal: find a tree (or trees) connecting
routers having local multicast group members



tree: not all paths between routers used
source-based: different tree from each sender to rcvrs
shared-tree: same tree used by all group members
Shared tree
Source-based trees
Network Layer 4-70