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Network+ Guide to Networks
5th Edition
Chapter 6
Network Hardware
Objectives
• Identify the functions of LAN connectivity hardware
• Install, configure, and differentiate between network
devices such as, NICs, hubs, bridges, switches,
routers, and gateways
• Explain the advanced features of a switch and
understand popular switching techniques, including
VLAN management
• Explain the purposes and properties of routing
• Describe common IPv4 and IPv6 routing protocols
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NICs (Network Interface Cards)
• Connectivity devices
– Enable device transmission
– Transceiver
• Transmits and receives data
• Physical layer and Data Link layer functions
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–
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Issue data signals
Assemble and disassemble data frames
Interpret physical addressing information
Determine right to transmit data
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NICs (cont’d.)
• Smart hardware
–
–
–
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Perform prioritization
Network management
Buffering
Traffic-filtering
• Do not analyze information
– Added by Layers 3 through 7 OSI model protocols
• Importance
– Common to every networking device, network
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Types of NICs
• Before ordering or installing NIC
– Know device interface type
• NIC dependencies
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–
–
–
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Access method
Network transmission speed
Connector interfaces
Compatible motherboard or device type
Manufacturer
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Types of NICs (cont’d.)
• Bus
– Circuit, signaling pathway
– Motherboard uses to transmit data to computer’s
components
• Memory, processor, hard disk, NIC
– Differ according to capacity
• Defined by data path width and clock speed
– Data path size
• Parallel bits transmitting at any given time
• Proportional to attached device’s speed
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Internal Bus Standards
• Expansion slots
– Multiple electrical contacts on motherboard
– Allows bus expansion
• Expansion card (expansion board)
– Circuit board for additional devices
– Inserts into expansion slot, establishes electrical
connection
– Device connects to computer’s main circuit or bus
– Computer centrally controls device
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Internal Bus Standards (cont’d.)
• Multiple bus types
– PCI bus: most popular expansion board NIC
• PCI (Peripheral Component Interconnect)
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32- or 64-bit bus
Clock speeds rated at 33-, 66- or 133-MHz
Maximum data transfer rate: 1 Gbps
Introduced by Intel (1992)
Latest official version: 3.0 (2004)
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Figure 6-1 PCI NIC
• ISA (Industry Standard Architecture)
– Original PC bus type (early 1980s)
• Support for 8-bit and 16-bit data path, 4.77-MHz clock
• PCI bus characteristics
– Shorter connector length, faster data transmission
• Compared to previous bus types (ISA)
– PCs and Macintosh compatible
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Figure 6-2 PCIe NIC
• PCIe (PCI Express)
– 32- or 64-bit bus
– Maximum 133-MHz clock speed
– Transfer rate
• 500 Mbps per data path (full-duplex transmission)
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Internal Bus Standards (cont’d.)
• PCIe advantages over PCI
–
–
–
–
More efficient data transfer
Quality of service distinctions support
Error reporting, handling
Current PCI software compatible
• PCIe slots differ from conventional PCI
– Vary by lanes supported
– Lane offers full-duplex throughput of 500 Mbps
• Support up to 16 lanes
• x16 slot : 8 Gbps throughput
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Figure 6-3 A motherboard with multiple expansion slots
• Determining bus type
– Read documentation
– Look inside PC case
– If more than one expansion slot type:
• Refer to NIC, PC manufacturers’ guidelines
• Choose NIC matching most modern bus
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Peripheral Bus Standards
• Attach peripheral devices externally
• External connection advantage
– Simple installation
• Personal Computer Memory Card International
Association or PCMCIA
– Sets standards for externally attached cards
• Connect virtually any external device type
• PC Card
– First standard PCMCIA-standard adapter
• 16- bit interface running at 8 MHz
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Figure 6-4 A CardBus NIC
• CardBus standard (1990s)
– 32-bit interface running at 33 MHz
– Matches PCI expansion board standard
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Peripheral Bus Standards
(cont’d.)
• ExpressCard standard
– Many different external devices connect to portable
computers
– 26-pin interface
– Data transfer rates: 250 Mbps in each direction
• 500 Mbps total
– Same data transfer standards as PCIe specification
– Two sizes
• 34 mm, 54 mm wide
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Peripheral Bus Standards
(cont’d.)
Figure 6-5 ExpressCard modules
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Peripheral Bus Standards
(cont’d.)
• USB (universal serial bus) port
– Two USB standards
• Difference: speed
• USB 1.1: transfer rate of 12 Mbps
• USB 2.0: transfer rate of 480 Mbps
– Future
• USB 3.0 (SuperSpeed USB)
• Transfer rate: 4.8 Gbps
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Types of NICs (cont’d.)
Figure 6-6 A USB NIC
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Peripheral Bus Standards
(cont’d.)
• Firewire
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Apple Computer (1980s)
IEEE 1394 standard (1995)
Traditional Firewire connection: 400 Mbps (max)
Newer version: 3 Gbps
Connects most peripheral types
Connects small network
• Two or more computers using bus topology
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Peripheral Bus Standards
(cont’d.)
• FireWire-connected peripherals
– Similar to USB- and PCMCIA-connected peripherals
• Simple installation
• Supported by most modern operating systems
– Two connector varieties: 4-pin and 6-pin
– 6-pin connector
• Two pins supply power
• Interconnect computers
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Peripheral Bus Standards
(cont’d.)
Figure 6-7 FireWire connectors (4-pin and 6-pin)
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Peripheral Bus Standards
(cont’d.)
• CompactFlash
– Designed by CompactFlash Association (CFA)
• Ultrasmall
• Removable data and input/output device
– Latest standard: 4.0
• Data transfer rate: 133 Mbps
– Uses
• Connects devices too small for PCMCIA slots
• Wireless connections
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Peripheral Bus Standards
(cont’d.)
Figure 6-8 A CompactFlash NIC
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On-Board NICs
• Connect device directly to motherboard
– On-board ports: mouse, keyboard
• New computers, laptops
– Use onboard NICs integrated into motherboard
• Advantages
– Saves space
– Frees expansion slots
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Wireless NICs
• Contain antennas
– Send, receive signals
– All bus types supported
• Disadvantages over wire-bound NICs
– More expensive
– Bandwidth and security limitations
Figure 6-9 Wireless NICs
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Installing NICs
• Three general steps
– Install hardware
– Install NIC software
– Configure firmware (if necessary)
• Set of data, instructions
• Saved to NIC’s ROM (read-only memory) chip
• Use configuration utility program
• EEPROM (electrically erasable programmable readonly memory)
– Apply electrical charges
• ROM data erased, changed
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Installing and Configuring NIC
Hardware
• Read manufacturer’s documentation
• Install expansion card NIC
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–
–
–
Verify toolkit contents
Unplug computer
Ground yourself
Open computer case
• Select slot, insert NIC, attach bracket, verify cables
– Replace cover, turn on computer
• Configure NIC software
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Figure 6-10 A properly inserted NIC
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Installing and Configuring NIC
Hardware (cont’d.)
• Physically install PCMCIA-standard NIC
– Insert card into PCMCIA slot
Figure 6-11 Installing a PCMCIA-standard NIC
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Installing and Configuring NIC
Hardware (cont’d.)
• Modern operating systems
– Do not require restart for PCMCIA-standard adapter
• Servers, other high-powered computers
– Install multiple NICs
– Repeat installation process for additional NIC
– Choose different slot
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Installing and Configuring NIC Software
• Device driver
– Software
• Enables attached device to communicate with
operating system
• Purchased computer
– Drivers installed
• Add hardware to computer
– Must install drivers
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Installing and Configuring NIC Software
(cont’d.)
• Operating system built-in drivers
– Automatically recognize hardware, install drivers
– Computer startup
• Device drivers loaded into RAM
• Computer can communicate with devices
• Drivers not available from operating system
– Install and configure NIC software
• Use operating system interface
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Figure 6-12 Windows Vista Update Driver Software dialog box
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Quick Quiz #1
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•
•
•
•
•
•
1. True or False: A NIC has no room for a transceiver.
Answer: False
A bus is defined by ____.
Answer: data path width and clock speed
True or False: One disadvantage to using wireless NICs is that
currently they are somewhat more expensive than wire-bound NICs
using the same bus type.
Answer: True
____ is a set of data or instructions that has been saved to a ROM.
Answer: Firmware
If the ___ NIC LED indicator light is blinking, this indicates that the
NIC is functional and transmitting frames to the network.
Answer: TX
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Interpreting LED Indicators
• After NIC is installed:
– Test by transmitting data
– Assess NIC LEDs for network communication
• Vary by manufacturer
• Read documentation
– Common lights
• ACT, LNK, LED, TX, RX
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IRQ (Interrupt Request)
• Message to computer
– Stop and pay attention to something else
• Interrupt
– Circuit board wire
• Device issues voltage to signal request
• IRQ number
– Uniquely identifies component to main bus
– NICs use IRQ 9, 10, or 11
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Table 6-1 IRQ assignments
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IRQ (Interrupt Request) (cont’d.)
• Two devices using same interrupt
– Resource conflicts, performance problems
• Many symptoms
– Must reassign IRQ
• Through operating system
• Through adapter’s EEPROM configuration utility
• Through computer’s CMOS configuration utility
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IRQ (Interrupt Request) (cont’d.)
• CMOS (complementary metal oxide semiconductor)
– Microchip requiring very little energy to operate
– Stores settings pertaining to computer’s devices
– Battery powered
• Settings saved after computer turned off
– Information used by BIOS (basic input/output system)
• BIOS
– Simple instruction set
• Enables computer to initially recognize hardware
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Memory Range
• Memory NIC, CPU use for exchanging, buffering
data
• Some are reserved for specific devices
• NICS
– High memory area (A0000–FFFFF range)
– Manufacturers prefer certain ranges
• Resource conflicts less likely (than IRQ settings)
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Base I/O Port
• Memory area
– Channel for moving data between NIC and CPU
• Cannot be used by other devices
• NICs use two channel memory ranges
– Base I/O port settings identify beginning of each
range
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Firmware Settings
• Contain NIC’s transmission characteristics
• Combination
– EEPROM chip on NIC and data it holds
• Change firmware
– Change EEPROM chip
– Requires bootable CD-ROM
• Configuration, install utility shipped with NIC
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Firmware Settings (cont’d.)
• Configuration utility
– View IRQ, I/O port, base memory, node address
– Change settings
– Perform diagnostics
• NIC’s physical components, connectivity
• Loopback plug (loopback adapter)
– Outgoing signals redirected into computer for testing
– Use with loopback test
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Choosing the Right NIC
• Considerations
– Compatibility with existing system
• Network bus type, access method, connector types,
transmission speed
– Drivers available
• Operating system, hardware
– Subtle differences
• Affecting network performance
• Important for server
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Table 6-2 NIC characteristics
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Repeaters and Hubs
• Repeater
– Simplest connectivity device regenerating signals
– Operates at Physical layer
• Has no means to interpret data
– Limited scope
• One input port, one output port
• Receives and repeats single data stream
– Suitable for bus topology networks
– Extend network inexpensively
– Rarely used on modern networks
• Limitations; other devices decreasing costs
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Repeaters and Hubs (cont’d.)
• Hub
– Repeater with more than one output port
• Multiple data ports, uplink port
– Repeats signal in broadcast fashion
– Operates at Physical layer
– Ethernet network hub
• Star or star-based hybrid central connection point
– Connect workstations, print servers, switches, file
servers, other devices
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Repeaters and Hubs (cont’d)
• Hub (cont’d.)
– Devices share same bandwidth amount, collision
domain
• More nodes leads to transmission errors, slow
performance
– Placement in network varies
• Simplest: stand-alone workgroup hub
• Different hub to each small workgroup
• Placement must adhering to maximum segment and
length limitations
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Repeaters and Hubs (cont’d)
Figure 6-13 Hubs in a network design
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Figure 6-14 A stand-alone hub
• Hub (cont’d.)
– Hubs vary according to:
• Supported media type, data transmission speeds
– Passive hubs, Intelligent hubs (managed hubs),
Stand-alone hubs (workgroup hubs)
– Replaced by switches routers
• Limited features
• Merely repeat signals
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Bridges
• Connects two network segments
– Analyze incoming frames and decide where to send
• Based on frame’s MAC address
•
•
•
•
Operate at Data Link layer
Single input port and single output port
Interpret physical addressing information
Advantages over repeaters and hubs
– Protocol independence
– Add length beyond maximum segments limits
– Improve network performance
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Figure 6-15 A bridge’s use of a filtering database
• Disadvantage compared to repeaters and hubs
– Longer to transmit data
• Filtering database (forwarding table)
– Used in decision making
• Filter or forward
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Bridges (cont’d.)
• New bridge installation
– Learn network
– Discover destination packet addresses
– Record in filtering database
• Destination node’s MAC address
• Associated port
– All network nodes discovered over time
• Today bridges nearly extinct
– Improved router and switch speed, functionality
– Lowered router and switch cost
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Switches
• Subdivide network
– Smaller logical pieces, segments
•
•
•
•
Operates at Data Link layer (traditional)
Operate at layers 3 and 4 (advanced)
Interpret MAC address information
Components
– Internal processor, operating system, memory,
several ports
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Figure 6-16 Switches
• Multiport switch advantages over bridge
– Better bandwidth use, more cost-efficient
– Each port acts like a bridge
• Each device effectively receives own dedicated channel
– Ethernet perspective
• Dedicated channel represents collision domain
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Switches (cont’d.)
• Historically
– Switches replaced hubs, eased congestion, provided
better security, performance
• Disadvantages
– Can become overwhelmed despite buffers
• Cannot prevent data loss
• UDP collisions mount: network traffic halts
• Switches replaced workgroup hubs
– Decreased cost, easy installation, configuration,
– Separate traffic according to port
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Installing a Switch
• Follow manufacturer’s guidelines
• General steps (assume Cat 5 or better UTP)
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–
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Verify switch placement
Turn on switch
Verify lights, self power tests
Configure (if necessary)
Connect NIC to a switch port (repeat for all nodes)
After all nodes connected, turn on nodes
Connect switch to larger network (optional)
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Installing a Switch (cont’d.)
Figure 6-17 Connecting a
workstation to a switch
Network+ Guide to Networks, 5th Edition
Figure 6-18 A switch on a small network
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Switching Methods
• Difference in switches
– Incoming frames interpretation
– Frame forwarding decisions making
• Four switching modes exist
– Two basic methods discussed
• Cut-Through Mode
• Store-and-Forward Mode
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Cut-Through Mode
• Switch reads frame’s header
• Forwarding decision made before receiving entire
packet
– Uses frame header: first 14 bytes contains destination
MAC address
• Cannot verify data integrity using frame check
sequence
• Can detect runts
– Erroneously shortened packets
• Runt detected: wait for integrity check
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Cut-Through Mode (cont’d.)
• Cannot detect corrupt packets
– May propagate flawed packets
• Advantage
– Speed
• Disadvantage
– Data buffering (switch flooded with traffic)
• Best use
– Small workgroups needing speed
– Low number of devices
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Store-and-Forward Mode
• Switch reads entire data frame into memory
– Checks for accuracy before transmitting information
• Advantage over cut-through mode
– Transmit data more accurately
• Disadvantage over cut-through mode
– More time consuming
• Best use
– Larger LAN environments; mixed environments
– Can transfer data between segments running different
transmission speeds
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VLANs and Trunking
• VLANs (virtual local area networks)
– Logically separate networks within networks
• Groups ports into broadcast domain
• Broadcast domain (subnet)
– Port combination making a Layer 2 segment
• Ports rely on layer 2 device to forward broadcast
frames
• Collision domain
– Ports in same broadcast domain
• Do not share single channel
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VLANs and Trunking (cont’d.)
Figure 6-19 A simple VLAN design
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VLANs and Trunking (cont’d.)
• Advantage of VLANs
– Flexible
• Ports from multiple switches or segments
• Use any end node type
– Reasons for using VLAN
•
•
•
•
Separating user groups
Isolating connections
Identifying priority device groups
Grouping legacy protocol devices
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VLANs and Trunking (cont’d.)
• VLAN creation
– Configuring switch software
• Manually through configuration utility
• Automatically using VLAN software tool
– Critical step
• Indicate to which VLAN each port belongs
– Additional specifications
• Security parameters, filtering instructions, port
performance requirements, network addressing and
management options
• Maintain VLAN by switch software
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Figure 6-20 Result of the show vlans command on a Cisco switch
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VLANs and Trunking (cont’d.)
• Potential VLAN issues
– Cutting off group from rest of network
• Correct by using router
• Trunking
– Switch’s interface carries traffic of multiple VLANs
• Trunk
– Single physical connection between devices
• Many logical VLANs transmit, receive data
• VLAN data separation
– Frame contains VLAN identifier in header
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VLANs and Trunking (cont’d.)
• Advantage of VLAN trunking
– Economical interface usage
– Switches make efficient use of processing capabilities
• VLAN configuration
– Can be complex
– Requires careful planning
• Ensure users and devices can exchange data
• Ensure VLAN switch properly interacts with other
devices
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STP (Spanning Tree Protocol)
• IEEE standard 802.1D
• Operates in Data Link layer
• Prevents traffic loops
– Calculating paths avoiding potential loops
– Artificially blocking links completing loop
• Three steps
– Select root bridge based on Bridge ID
– Examine possible paths between network bridge and
root bridge
– Disables links not part of shortest path
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STP (cont’d.)
Figure 6-21 Enterprise-wide switched network
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STP (cont’d.)
Figure 6-22 STP-selected paths on a switched network
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STP (cont’d.)
• History
– Introduced in 1980s
• Original STP too slow
– RSTP (Rapid Spanning Tree Protocol)
• Newer version
• IEEE’s 802.1w standard
• Cisco and Extreme Networks
– Proprietary versions
• No enabling or configuration needed
– Included in switch operating software
• May alter default priorities
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Content and Multilayer Switches
• Layer 3 switch (routing switch)
– Interprets Layer 3 data
• Layer 4 switch
– Interprets Layer 4 data
• Content switch (application switch)
– Interprets Layer 4 through Layer 7 data
• Advantages
– Advanced filtering, statistics keeping, security
functions
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Content and Multilayer Switches (cont’d.)
• Disadvantages
– No agreed upon standard
• Layer 3 and Layer 4 switch features vary widely
• Distinguishing between Layer 3 and Layer 4 switch
– Manufacturer dependent
• Higher-layer switches
– Three times Layer 2 switches
– Used in backbone
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Routers
• Multiport connectivity device
– Directs data between network nodes
– Integrates LANs and WANs
• Different transmission speeds, protocols
• Operate at Network layer (Layer 3)
– Directs data from one segment or network to another
– Logical addressing
– Protocol dependent
• Slower than switches and bridges
– Need to interpret Layers 3 and higher information
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Routers (cont’d.)
• Traditional stand-alone LAN routers
– Being replaced by Layer 3 routing switches
• New niche
– Specialized applications
• Linking large Internet nodes
• Completing digitized telephone calls
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Router Characteristics and Functions
• Intelligence
– Tracks node location
– Determine shortest, fastest path between two nodes
– Connects dissimilar network types
• Large LANs and WANs
– Routers indispensible
• Router components
– Internal processor, operating system, memory, input
and output jacks, management control interface
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Figure 6-23 Routers
• Modular router
– Multiple slots
• Holding different interface cards, other devices
• Inexpensive routers
– Home, small office use
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Router Characteristics and Functions
(cont’d.)
• Router tasks
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–
–
–
Connect dissimilar networks
Interpret Layer 3 addressing
Determine best data path
Reroute traffic
• Optional functions
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–
–
–
–
Filter broadcast transmissions
Enable custom segregation, security
Support simultaneous connectivity
Provide fault tolerance
Monitor network traffic, diagnose problems
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Router Characteristics and Functions
(cont’d.)
• Directing network data
– Static routing
• Administrator programs specific paths between nodes
– Dynamic routing
• Router automatically calculates best path between two
nodes
• Routing table
• Installation
– Simple: small office, home LANs
– Challenging: sizeable networks
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Router Characteristics and Functions
(cont’d.)
Figure 6-24 The placement of routers on a LAN
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Routing Protocols
• Best path
– Most efficient route from one node to another
– Dependent on:
•
•
•
•
•
Hops between nodes
Current network activity
Unavailable link
Network transmission speed
Topology
– Determined by routing protocol
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Routing Protocols (cont’d.)
• Routing protocol
– Router communication
– Collects current network status data
• Contribute to best path selection
• Routing table creation
• Router convergence time
– Time router takes to recognize best path
• Change or network outage event
– Distinguishing feature
• Overhead; burden on network to support routing
protocol
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Distance-Vector: RIP, RIPv2, BGP
• Distance-vector routing protocols
– Determine best route based on distance to
destination
– Factors
• Hops, latency, network traffic conditions
• RIP (Routing Information Protocol)
– Only factors in number of hops between nodes
• Limits 15 hops
– Interior routing protocol
– Slow and less secure
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Distance-Vector: RIP, RIPv2, BGP
(cont’d.)
• RIPv2 (Routing Information Protocol Version 2)
– Generates less broadcast traffic, more secure
– Cannot exceed 15 hops
– Less commonly used
• BGP (Border Gateway Protocol)
–
–
–
–
Communicates using BGP-specific messages
Many factors determine best paths
Configurable to follow policies
Most complex (choice for Internet traffic)
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Link-State: OSPF, IS-IS
• Link-state routing protocol
– Routers share information
• Each router independently maps network, determines
best path
• OSPF (Open Shortest Path First)
–
–
–
–
Interior or border router use
No hop limit
Complex algorithm for determining best paths
Each OSPF router
• Maintains database containing other routers’ links
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Link-State: OSPF, IS-IS (cont’d.)
• IS-IS (Intermediate System to Intermediate System)
– Codified by ISO
– Interior routers only
– Supports two Layer 3 protocols
• IP
• ISO-specific protocol
– Less common than OSPF
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Hybrid: EIGRP
• Hybrid
– Link-state and distance-vector characteristics
– EIGRP (Enhanced Interior Gateway Routing Protocol)
• Most popular
• Cisco network routers only
– EIGRP benefits
•
•
•
•
Fast convergence time, low network overhead
Easier to configure and less CPU-intensive than OSPF
Supports multiple protocols
Accommodates very large, heterogeneous networks
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Gateways and Other Multifunction
Devices
• Gateway
– Combinations of networking hardware and software
• Connecting two dissimilar networks
– Connect two systems using different formatting,
communications protocols, architecture
– Repackages information
– Reside on servers, microcomputers, connectivity
devices, mainframes
• Popular gateways
– E-mail gateway, Internet gateway, LAN gateway,
Voice/data gateway, Firewall
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Summary
• NIC interface cards
– Types, installation, testing, IRQ use, Base I/O port
use, firmware settings, selection
• Repeater and hubs
• Bridges
• Switches
– Installation, switching methods, VLANs and trunking,
STP (Spanning Tree Protocol), Content and
Multilayer Switches
• Router characteristics and functions, protocols
• Gateways and other multifunction devices
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