Download The contribution of species richness and composition to bacterial

1
The contribution of species richness and composition
to bacterial services
Thomas Bell1, 2, Jonathan A. Newman3, Bernard W. Silverman4, Sarah L. Turner2,
and Andrew K. Lilley2
1
Department of Zoology, University of Oxford, South Parks Road, Oxford, OX1 3PS,
UK
2
Molecular Microbial Ecology Group, NERC Centre for Ecology and Hydrology,
Mansfield Road, Oxford, OX1 3SR, UK
3
Department of Environmental Biology, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON, N1G
2W1, Canada
4
St. Peter’s College, Oxford, OX1 2DL, UK
Bacterial communities provide important services. They break down pollutants,
municipal waste and the food in our gut, and they are the primary means by
which organic matter is recycled to plants and other autotrophs. Nevertheless,
the processes that determine the rate at which these services are supplied are
only beginning to be unravelled. Biodiversity influences the way in which
ecosystems function 1, but the form of the relationship between bacterial
biodiversity and functioning remains poorly understood. Here we describe a
manipulative experiment that measured how biodiversity affects the functioning
of communities containing up to 72 species constructed from a collection of
naturally occurring culturable bacteria. The experiment used a novel design that
allowed us to manipulate large numbers of bacterial species selected at random
from among those that were culturable. We demonstrate that there is an
increasing decelerating relationship between bacterial diversity and community
respiration. We also show that both synergistic interactions among bacterial
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species and the composition of the bacterial community are important in
determining the level of ecosystem functioning.
Two principal mechanisms underlie our current understanding of how
biodiversity affects ecosystem functioning, especially those functions related to
ecosystem productivity (the rate of biomass turnover)2. First, species use slightly
different resources; species-rich communities are therefore more productive because
more of the overall resource is used (the “complementarity mechanism”)2. Second,
there is variation in the magnitude of individual species effects on ecosystem
functioning; species-rich communities are therefore more productive on average
because they are more likely to contain species with a large effect on ecosystem
functioning (the “selection mechanism”)2. Unfortunately, both mechanisms predict a
decelerating diversity-functioning relationship under some conditions (Fig. 1), so it is
not possible to distinguish between the two mechanisms on the basis of the shape of
the diversity-function relationship alone. Both of these mechanisms are important in
determining the level of ecosystem functioning 3,4, but their relative importance
appears to depend on the particular ecosystem under investigation. Complementarity
is thought to be relatively unimportant in natural bacterial communities5-7. Although it
is possible to manufacture communities whose constituent species are
complementary, many bacterial species are functionally redundant when tested on
individual substrates 8. The addition of species to species-poor communities is
therefore unlikely to have a substantial effect on the level of ecosystem functioning
except by increasing the probability of selecting species that contribute greatly to
functioning9-11.
Experiments to test these ideas have been hampered by the methodological
difficulties associated with manipulating complex natural bacterial communities.
Laboratory microcosm experiments, which construct communities from pure cultures,
have manipulated only a few (< 20) readily available species12. Such experiments
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indicate which mechanisms are possible but not which mechanisms are important
under natural conditions. More diverse intact bacterial communities can be
manipulated by applying varying levels of a stress (e.g. a bactericide) 13, by diluting
and re-growing the community 5,7, or by making use of natural differences in
community composition10,11,14. Unfortunately, in such experiments the species
composition of the low diversity treatment is a subset of the high diversity treatment,
so species composition is confounded with species richness15. Here we report the
results of an experiment that manipulates relatively large numbers of culturable
bacterial species selected at random from a naturally-occurring aerobic bacterial
assemblage using a novel experiment design that enables us to separate the
contributions of species richness and species composition to bacterial services.
The ecosystems that we use are the semi-permanent rainpools that form in barklined depressions near the base of large European beech trees (Fagus sylvaticus).
These natural microcosms house an array of heterotrophic organisms whose energy is
derived principally from beech leaf litter16. Bacterial genetic diversity and
composition vary substantially among treeholes17, so it is reasonable to ask whether
this natural variation results in differences in ecosystem functioning. We isolated
bacteria from six treeholes by picking colonies at random that grew on nutrient agar
and determining whether the isolates were of the same or different species using
standard identification protocols. The 347 isolates were composed of 103 distinct
species level identities, from which we selected 72 at random to use in the current
experiment. This procedure selects only for species that are aerobic heterotrophs
capable of forming colonies on agar plates. As such, the results cannot be reliably
generalised to the larger treehole bacterial community except insofar as they
demonstrate which results are possible for the larger community.
Microcosms containing only sterile beech leaf disks and 10 ml of liquid
(phosphate buffer) were inoculated with random combinations of the 72 selected
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bacterial species. Ecosystem functioning was measured as the daily respiration rate of
the bacterial community in each of the 1374 microcosms over three time intervals
(day 0 to 7, 7 to 14, and 14 to 28). We chose respiration as our measure of ecosystem
functioning for two reasons. First, much of the work on ecosystem functioning in
other systems has concentrated on biomass turnover, which is closely related to
respiration. Second, the method automatically integrates respiration over several days,
and so is not affected by transient dynamics, as would be case for example if we
simply measured standing biomass at the conclusion of the experiment.
The mean daily rate of bacterial respiration increased rapidly with increasing
species richness from monocultures (5.07 ± 0.22 Pg CO2 ml-1 d-1, mean ± standard
error throughout) to 18 species (8.93 ± 0.42 Pg CO2 ml-1 d-1), but the increase slowed
as species richness increased to 72 species (11.35 ± 0.96 Pg CO2 ml-1 d-1) (Fig. 2).
This decelerating curve is well described by a linear dependence of respiration rate on
log-transformed species richness, and as such is similar to the relationship found for
other groups of organisms 3,18-21. The data from the three time periods are well
described by a similar relationship but the absolute amount of respiration at each level
of diversity and the slope of the curves declined over time (Fig. 3). Interestingly, the
shape of the curve suggests that functioning asymptotes well beyond 72 species,
indicating that further increases in diversity will continue to increase the level of
ecosystem functioning.
We evaluated the effect of species composition and species richness on
respiration using a series of linear models in which the effects of time (T), species
richness (R), species composition (C), and their interactions were entered sequentially
(Table 1). In these models, species richness is the average contribution of the number
of species to respiration irrespective of the particular species that are present.
Similarly species composition is the average contribution of each species to
respiration irrespective of the level of species richness, summed over every species.
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The model coefficients associated with the presence of each species give an estimate
of the impact of the species on respiration. Each species appeared with equal
frequency at each level of species richness, which excluded the possibility that any
increase in respiration with increasing richness was due to the chance selection of
species with a large effect on respiration at high levels of species richness.
Inspection of the sums of squares indicates that, as implied by Fig. 3, much of
the variability in bacterial respiration rates is due to time, presumably because only
recalcitrant resource remained after the first week. The linear effect of species
richness represents the situation where every species is identical and that their effects
are additive. The non-linear effect of species richness (i.e. Log(R), the logtransformed species richness, see Table 1, step 3) represents the effect of richness
over and above the additive effects. Log(R) therefore describes how the effect of
richness deviates from complete complementarity (Fig 1) and as such is the effect that
is of most interest in studies such as this. Each species is equally represented at each
level of species richness, therefore the Log(R) term is the impact of interactions
among species on bacterial respiration. This effect is clearly significant and the slope
changes with time (see: Figure 3; Table 1, steps 3 and 4). Inspection of Fig. 2
indicates that some of the species-poor microcosms performed as well or better than
the most species-rich microcosms, suggesting that the species composition is also
important in determining the overall rate of respiration. This is confirmed by the
analysis, which shows that species composition had a smaller but significant impact
on the respiration rate that interacts with species richness (Table 1, step 5, 6). Unlike
similar previous studies, in this experiment the effect of species composition and logtransformed species richness are (at this point) orthogonal, therefore the order of entry
into the linear model does not affect the conclusions.
The coefficient associated with each of the species indicates their contribution
to ecosystem functioning. The coefficients are approximately normally distributed
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(Fig. 4) demonstrating that most species contributed only marginally and that no
single species was able to dominate the respiration rate. Detailed consideration of the
species effects and their interaction with diversity (see Supplementary Discussion)
indicates that there is a fairly weak but significant correlation (r = -0.42) between the
species effects (C) and the C u Log( R) interaction. On the whole, species that have
high effects at moderate diversity tend to have higher effects at lower diversity and
lower effects at higher diversity (Supplementary Fig. S1). However, this is only a
general trend and cannot be deduced for all species individually.
Synergistic interactions among the bacterial species, of which the
complementarity mechanism is one possibility, played an important role in
determining the rate of functioning in this ecosystem, and therefore contrast with
previous studies that have emphasised the role of community composition over the
role of diversity in determining bacterial community functioning 6,10,11,13,14. The
selection mechanism would be relatively unimportant in this system because no single
species dominated the respiration rate (Fig. 4). Nonetheless, the differences in the
species composition effects were important in determining the level of respiration, but
appear to play a more minor role relative to species richness (Table 1). As such, the
results are in general agreement with studies that have estimated the impact of
community composition using observed differences in natural communities10,11,14. The
data demonstrate that it is possible in principle to engineer a bacterial community to
obtain the maximum rate of ecosystem functioning by selecting a particular
consortium of species, as is already the practice for some industrial applications22.
Enhancing the biodiversity of these systems might provide a more rapid and equally
reliable solution. Positive interactions can also alter the shape of the diversityfunction relationship 23, and might be particularly important in bacterial communities
where resource is often processed by a number of different species. We do not discuss
this possibility in detail because the experiment was not designed to detect such
interactions, but the mechanism remains an interesting prospect for future research.
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Our results cannot be directly generalized to natural environments. The bacterial
species that are apparently unimportant in relatively stable microcosm environments
might play an important role in maintaining natural levels of community respiration
where conditions fluctuate. In addition, we have chosen only aerobic heterotrophs that
are culturable on R2 agar, so large portions of the treehole bacterial community are
not considered, including for example the obligate anaerobes. Even with extensive
culturing on multiple media typically only a fraction (<10%) of bacterial species are
culturable 24.Several studies have now compared the culturable to the unculturable
community24,25, and there appears to be a consensus that they often bear little
resemblance to each other. The library of bacterial strains is likely to be a similarly
unrepresentative sample of those discovered using molecular techniques in the sense
that the species that dominate clone libraries will be different from those that
dominate our library of culturable bacteria. We would therefore caution against
extending our results to treehole bacterial communities in general. However, it is clear
from the FAME identifications (Supplementary Table S1) that we have obtained a
broad cross-section of bacterial taxanomic- and functional richness. Although it is not
possible to directly predict the physiological traits of our experimental strains from
their nearest taxonomic neighbours (Supplementary Table S1) it is apparent that the
72 aerobic heterotrophic treehole bacteria chosen for this study represented a broad
taxonomic range with 27 species in 17 Gramm-positive genera and 19 species in 14
Gram-negative genera. The experiment therefore provides suggestive evidence that
similar processes may operate in natural environments.
The level of complexity of bacterial communities, with perhaps thousands of
bacterial species contained within a few millilitres of pond water, has prevented a
comprehensive manipulation of bacterial assemblages. Molecular techniques have
recently enabled relatively detailed descriptions of bacterial community composition
and diversity but have not been accompanied by parallel methods to manipulate
diversity. These unculturable bacteria clearly play an important role in bacterial
8
community dynamics, but experiments remain impossible so long as the technology
does not exist to manipulate individual species. Environmental microbiology is able
to identify the potential impacts of differences in composition and diversity on
functioning 26, but we believe that a mechanistic understanding of microbial
communities will require similar large-scale manipulations of bacterial assemblages.
Methods
Laboratory Methods
We spread 20 Pl serial dilutions from 6 stirred treeholes onto replicate 145 mm R2
agar (Oxoid Ltd.) plates. The resulting colonies were picked at random into 0.7 ml
10% v/v nutrient broth (Oxoid Ltd.) after incubation for 7 to 10 days at room
temperature. These isolates were assigned identities from their cellular fatty acid
profiles using standard fatty acid methyl esther (FAME) extraction protocols 27, gas
chromatography, and the Sherlock Microbial Identification System (MIDI Inc.,
Newark, USA ) 28. The 347 isolates were composed of 103 species (Euclidean
distance >10), from which we selected 72 species at random for use in the current
experiment (see Supplemental Table S1). We designate our operational taxanomic
units as “species” as a convenient label rather than because we are confident that they
are analogous to species as defined for larger organisms. We refer the reader to
reviews of the bacterial species concept29 and FAME identification procedures for
more complete discussions of the subject 28.
Bacterial communities were assembled in 30 ml screw-top vials. Each of these
microcosms contained 10 ml of sterile phosphate buffer saline (PBS, pH = 7.0) and 50
sterile beech-leaf discs (diameter = 8 mm). The beech leaves were obtained from
freshly fallen leaves collected on 18 October 2003 and stored at 4qC until the start of
the experiment. Each microcosm was inoculated with a total of 100 Pl of pure culture
grown in 10% nutrient broth for at least one week at 23qC (e.g. 4-species
9
combinations were inoculated with 25 Pl of pure culture from each of the constituent
species). Although stationary phase density varied among the isolates, it was assumed
that this would have little impact on the dynamics over 28 days. Approximately 50
microcosms were inoculated per day on weekdays from 26 July to 3 September 2004.
The particular combinations were inoculated in a random order to prevent possible
effects due to the day of the week. Each microcosm was kept at 23qC throughout the
experiment and was dismantled 28 days after the day on which it was inoculated,
which is a comparable length of time to similar microcosm experiment (e.g. Ref
12
).
We used bacterial respiration as a measure of ecosystem functioning. Sterile 5ml vials containing 2 ml 0.2 M NaOH solution were inserted into each microcosm
directly as it was inoculated. We removed the 2 ml of NaOH after 7, 14, and 28 days,
and replaced the removed NaOH with freshly prepared 0.2 M NaOH. The carbon
dioxide (CO2) respired by the bacterial communities, as well as the CO2 sealed in the
headspace of the vials, reacts with the NaOH to form Na2CO3 and H2O. Titrating the
NaOH against 0.02 M HCl to neutral and subtracting sterile negative controls gives
the total amount of CO2 respired by the bacterial community over that time period 30
Experiment design and statistical analysis
We assembled random combinations of species at 12 levels of species richness
because it is logistically impractical to use all the combinations of 72 species (there
are > 4.7 u1021 combinations). We used an experiment design that enabled the
separation of the effect of species richness and species composition. The basic
72
building block of the experimental design is a set of
microcosms each with s
s
species present. Within this set, the microcosms are constructed by sampling the 72
species without replacement; so for example if s = 4, we randomly partition the 72
species into 18 4-species combinations. The process of constructing a system of
microcosms is carried out independently 5 times, and for each set of microcosms thus
constructed, 2 independent replicates are carried out. Therefore, for any given s, the
10
number of microcosms considered is 5 u 2 u
72
. We chose the level s to be every
s
factor of 72, s = 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 9, 12, 18, 24, 36 and 72. A summary of the design is
given in Supplementary Table S2.
The time (3 levels), species richness (linear and log-transformed) and species
composition (72 factors each with 2 levels) were entered into a series of linear
models. We calculated the significance of the factors added to each model and
compared the models. The third time period (day 14 to 28) was weighted by a factor
of 4 to compensate for unequal variances among the levels of time. The model fit was
improved by using diversity as a Log-transformed continuous variable rather than a
categorical variable.
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Supplementary Information accompanies the manuscript.
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Correspondence and requests for materials should be addressed to A.K.L. ([email protected]).
Acknowledgements We are grateful to J. Fryxell, T. Nudds, and their graduate students for providing
comments on the original manuscript, to A. Singer for help developing the technique to measure
bacterial respiration, and CEH Oxford for providing the laboratory space. TB was supported by FCAR
(Quebec), NSERC (Canada), and the Clarendon Fund (Oxford University).
Competing interests statement The authors declare that they have no competing financial interests.
Authors’ contributions The experiment was originally conceived by TB, JAN, and AKL. The
laboratory work was conducted by TB with the help of AKL and SLT. The experiment design was
conceived by AKL and developed by TB, JAN, and BWS. The statistical analyses were performed by
BWS and TB. The manuscript was written principally by TB with extensive input from JAN, BWS,
and AKL.
Figure 1 Illustration of how the complementarity mechanism and the selection
mechanisms alter the shape of the relationship between species richness and
some measure of ecosystem functioning. If the species contribute roughly
equally to ecosystem functioning, species effects are additive if the species
are completely complementary (black line) or decelerating if the species are
to some extent functionally redundant (light grey line). If the same pool of species
now contains a few species that, when present in a given mixture, are able to
attain the maximum ecosystem functioning, the shape of the curve will also be
decelerating (dark grey line).
Figure 2 Relationship between manipulated species richness (R) and
ecosystem functioning (F, the mean daily rate of the bacterial community
respiration) over 28 days. Each data point (denoted by a dash, -) is the mean
of two replicates with identical species composition (n = 687). Filled circles
are the means at each level of species richness (F = 1.21 Ln(R) + 4.98; R2 =
0.12).
13
Figure 3 Relationship between manipulated species richness (R) and
ecosystem functioning (F, the mean daily rate of bacterial respiration r
standard error) over each of the three time periods. Each data point is first
averaged over two replicates identical in their composition and then across all
data at each level of species richness. Error bars are standard errors (Day 0
to 7: F = 2.32Ln(R) + 12.18, R2 = 0.13; Day 7 to 14: F = 1.12Ln(R) + 3.33, R2
= 0.03; Day 14 to 28: F = 0.7Ln(R) + 2.20, R2 = 0.05).
Figure 4 Linear model coefficients as a function of the theoretical quantiles of
the normal distribution. Each data point is the linear model coefficient
associated with the 72 species used in the experiment. The numbers over the
most significant data points refer to the species codes used in Supplementary
Table S1. Positive coefficients indicate that the species has an above average
contribution to respiration and negative values denote a below average
contribution. A linear relationship indicates that the data are normally
distributed. Individual t-values test whether each of the coefficients differs
from zero. The standard error of each of the species’ coefficients is
approximately equal (0.68 ± 0.001, mean ± standard error), and so the
significance thresholds for each species are also equal. The data points
between the dashed lines are not significantly different from zero following a
0.05
Bonferonni correction for multiple tests ( D
6.9 u 10 4 ). The coefficient
72
for the log-transformed species richness factor in the same linear model is
1.77 (p < 10-5).
14
Table 1 Linear models estimating the impact of time, species richness,
and species composition on bacterial respiration.
Step
Model
Res. DF
Res. SS
Treat. DF Treat. SS
-
F
AIC
-
27,236.9
1
Intercept
4,121
283,519
-
2
1+T+R+TxR
4,116
115,026
5
168,493
1,269.4*
23,528.4
3
2 + Log(R)
4,115
113,528
1
1,499
56.5*
23,476.3
4
3 + T x Log(R)
4,113
112,916
2
612
11.5*
23,458.1
5
4+C
4,042
108,756
71
4,160
2.2*
23,445.3
6
5 + C x Log(R)
3,970
104,732
72
4,024
2.1*
23,433.9
7
6+TxC
3,828
101,622
142
3,110
0.8
23,593.7
The linear models describe the impact of time (T), species richness (R) and species
composition (C) on the daily rate of microbial respiration (Pg CO2 ml-1 d-1). At each step (from
1 to 7), terms are added to the linear model and the residual degrees of freedom (Res. DF)
and sum of squares (Res. SS) are re-calculated. The treatment degrees of freedom (Treat.
DF), sum of squares (Treat. SS), and F-statistic (F, * p < 0.0001) are calculated at each step
only for the term that has been added to the model during that step. Akaike’s An Information
Criterion (AIC) is calculated for each model. Lower AIC values indicate an improved model..
lilley_figure2
15
(µg CO2 ml−1 d−1)
Bacterial respiration
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−
−
−
●
● ●
−
−
−
−
−
−
−
−
−
−
−
−
−
−
−
−
−
−
−
−
−
−
−
−
−
−
−
−
−
−
−
−
−
−
−
−
−
−
−
−
−
−
−
−
−
−
−
−
−
−
−
−
−
−
−
−
−
−
−
−
−
−
−
−
−
−
−
−
−
−
−
−
−
−
−
−
−
−
−
−
−
−
−
−
●●
−
−
−
−
−
−
−
−
−
−
−
−
−
−
−
−
−
−
−
−
−
−
−
−
−
−
−
−
−
−
−
−
−
−
●
−
−
−
−
−
−
−
−
−
−
−
−
−
−
−
−
−
−
−
−
−
−
−
−
−
−
−
−
−
−
−
−
−
● ●
−
−
−
−
−
−
−
−
−
−
−
−
−
−
−
−
−
−
−
−
−
−
−
−
−
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−
−
−
−
−
−
−
−
−
−
−
−
−
−
−
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−
−
−
5
10
20
50
Species richness (log scale)
lilley_figure3
(µg CO2 ml−1 d−1)
Bacterial respiration
25
20
Day 0 to 7
15
Day 7 to 14
10
5
Day 14 to 28
0
1
2
5
10
20
50
Species richness (log scale)
Linear model coefficients
lilley_figure4
60
3
●
61 33
●
2
●
1
0
−1
●
●
●●
●●●●
●●●
●
●●
●
●●
●●●●●
●●
●●
●●
●●●
●●●●
●
●●
●●●●
●●●●●
●●●●●
●●●●●
●●●●
●
● ● ●●
67
−2
●
●
56
−3
−2
−1
0
1
Theoretical quantiles
2
26
●