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Julius Caesar
The Gallic Campaign
Mrs Graham’s Ancient History
The Pen is Mightier than the Sword
The most prolific source of evidence is Caesar’s own “ De Bello Gallico” written as a
series of field reports and sent back to Rome.
Caesar’s style of writing , describing himself in the 3RD person, fails to achieve the
historical objectivity but provides a clear military narrative of events. Although biased it
is an extremely useful source.
Caesar’s aim in his Commentaries was to keep fresh in the minds of Romans , his
outstanding achievements, thereby overshadowing any memory of his previous illegal
acts.
Other sources include Plutarch’s Life of Caesar and Suetonius’ Lives of the Caesars.
Both sources are very sketchy in their cover of the Gallic Wars
Numismatical Evidence- Roman
Coins minted in the 50’s BC
Why Cisalpine and
Transalpine Gaul?
Close enough to Rome to keep
an eye on political
developments and communicate
with aides
As proconsul, he could avoid
prosecution for his illegal
Acts as Consul the year
before
Gaul was a source of
recruitment for troops and
skilled craftsmen
for swords and armor
Gaul was a country rich
In natural resources and would
Link Rome with the Atlantic
The factional nature of the many
tribes of Gaul made them easy
to defeat.?????
Evolution of the Roman Legion
Volunteer to professional soldier
Roman Marches
One days march; 15-20 miles. Overrall length of column 22.5 miles
Average speed; 3 miles per hour
Total army makeup- based on a six legion army;
Legionary troops;30,000
Ancillary troops;3,500
Gallic Cavalry Wing;4,000
Roman cavalry;720
Setvants;6,500
Horses;4,720
Total mules;10,000
Legion Staff- ancillary troops,clerks,technicians,specialists,reserve
tentage,cavalry equipment,field hospital,medical staff, veterinary staff,
engineering stores, workshops.
Caesar maintained that at any one time there were between 300-500 sick
Food ; Daily requirement 3lbs per day per man. Each man carried 10 days
ration
Artillary included, siege engines, Ballistae, Caterpults and Onagers
Celtic Battle Tactics- Chariots and
Chaos
Instigation and Motivation?
Caesar's campaigns in Gaul began in 58 BC, when the
Helvetii and several neighboring peoples began a
mass migration from their homes in Switzerland.
Caesar forbade their passage through Roman territory
and marched against them. Once the Helvetii had been
driven back to their homes and their leader,
Dumnorix, was defeated, Caesar then turned on
Ariovistus and his tribe, the Sequani, who had been
threatening the Aedui, allies of Rome. Ariovistus was
quickly defeated in a single battle. Thus began eight
successive years of largely successful campaigns that
would secure the regions of Gaul for Roman control.
Justify your Actions.
Helvetii on the march 58BC
“ Caesar in as much as he kept in remembrance that
a Roman consul had been slaughtered, did not
think that their request ought to be granted; nor
was he of the opinion that men of hostile
disposition, if an opportunity of marching through
the province were given to them, would abstain
from outrage and mischief”
De Bello Gallico- Book 1
Book 1
Read the extract and using the annotation as
a guide, explain the significance of Caesar’s
writings and what they reveal about him.
Caesar against the Helvetii
Who has the Advantage?
Celeritas and Clemencia
“ The battle ended, that he might be able to come up with the remaining
forces, he procures a bridge to be made across the Saone. The Helvetii,
confused by his sudden arrival, when they had found that he had effected in
one day what they themselves had difficulty in accomplishing in
twenty….send ambassadors to him.”
“ He ordered the Helvetii to return to their territories from which they had
come and as there was nothing at home whereby they might support their
hunger, he commanded the Allobroges to let them have a plentiful supply of
corn.”
Date
Place
Enemy
Result
58BC
Nth Gaul
Helvetii
Defeated them at Bibracte
and forced
Them back to their
homeland
58BC
Rhine River
Suebi under
Drove the Germans
beyond the Rhine
Ariovistus
57BC
Nth of the Seine
Belgae
Nervii
The tribes
yielded to Caesar
56BC
West- Quiberon Bay
Venetii
Under the command of
Decimus Brutus, Venetii’s
defeated
55BC
RHINE River
Germans- Usipetes,
Tencteri
Annihilated the two tribeswomen and children
54BC
Britain
54BC
Nth East
52BC
Gergovia and Alesia
Defeated King
Cassivellanus
Belgic tribes under
Ambiorix
Gauls managed to
defeat1and a half legions.
Caesar finally crushes
them “ root and branch”
Averni and other tribes
Led by
Starved into submission by
use of siegeworks
Vercingetorix
A larger plan?
Caesar against Ariovistus 58BC
Measure of Leadership!
One constant in Caesar’s style of leadership was his ability to get the
best from his men, either through leading from the front, relating to
them on a personal level or inspiring them when fear or mutiny
threatened.
READ CAESAR’S SPEECH TO HIS SOLDIERS.
Although we must consider the inherent bias, the proof is in the fact
that throughout Caesar’s military career in the Gallic and Civil Wars,
unlike other generals, no soldier ever left Caesar’s command.
Caesar against the Belgae 57BC
Read the extract from Book 2. What added
aspects can we see contributing to Caesar’s
success
Keeping a Tally
“The sum of all amounted to …368,000.When the census of those who
returned home was taken, as Caesar commanded the number was
found to be 110,000.” Book 1
“ On the basis of Caesar’s report, the Senate granted him a Supplicatio of
fifteen days.. The Senate was paying him respect for the Conquest of
the whole of Gaul. At the same time, it was indirectly confirming his
command and the legitimacy of his wars. It was honouring him in such
a way that the transgression of 59 were bound to pale. Its decision,
thus represented a quite extraordinary success for Caesar, however
little it meant in material terms”. C Meier
A Quantitative measure of Forgiveness?????????
Supplicatio in ancient Rome was a solemn thanksgiving or supplication to the
gods decreed by the senate: all the temples were opened, and the statues of the
gods placed in public upon couches (pulvinaria) to which the people offered
up their thanksgivings and prayers.
As a thanksgiving, when a great victory had been gained: it was usually
decreed as soon as official intelligence of the victory had been received by a
letter from the general in command. The number of days during which it was
to last was proportioned to the importance of the victory. Sometimes it was
decreed for only one day but more commonly for three or five days. A
supplication of ten days was first decreed in honour of Pompey at the
conclusion of the war with Mithridates and one of fifteen days after the
victory over the Belgae by Caesar, an honour which Caesar himself says had
never been granted to any one before. Subsequently a supplicatio of twenty
days was decreed after his conquest of Vercingetorix. From this time the
senate seems to have frequently increased the number of days out of mere
compliment to the general.
Caesar against the Venetii 56BC
The Roman naval tactics consisted
mainly in either propelling a
vessel with great force against a
rival and crushing the side, or in
catching hold of the hostile
craft with hooks, pulling
alongside, springing over on it,
and settling the conflict with a
hand-to-hand fight. In the seafight with the Veneti, who had
only sailing vessels, the Roman
sailors crippled the enemy's
ships by cutting down the sailyards
Delegation, Innovation and
Recognition
“ One thing provided by our men was of great service..sharp hooks
inserted into and fastened upon poles….When the ropes were caught
by them and pulled…the yards necessarily fell down, so that all hope
of the Gallic vessels of the Gallic vessels depending on their sails was
taken from them”
“The rest of the contest depended on courage; in which our men
decidedly had the advantage; and the more so, because the whole
action was carried on in the sight of Caesar and the entire army; so that
no act, a little more valiant than ordinary, could pass unobserved”.
Conference at Luca 56BC
Commanding the battlefield and Roman politics
simultaneously!!!!!!
The account of the conference of Luca found in most text books is that in 56
BC Caesar met with his fellow triumvirs Crassus and Pompey in Luca, along
with 120 lictors (attendants and magistrates) and 200 senators, and that the
triumvirate decided that
1. Pompey and Crassus would run for consul,
2 receive proconsular command in Spain and Syria respectively upon exiting
office, and
3.as consuls vote to grant Caesar and extension on his term of office in Gaul.
However, understanding what really happened at this conference is of vital
importance to understanding all the events leading up to the civil war. The
primary sources (Dio, Appian, Plutarch, Suetonius and Cicero) all disagree at
one point or another as to what truly happened at Luca in 56 B.C. or indeed
whether anything happened at all.
Why are 200 Senators talking to Caesar????
Significance for Caesar
Timing is everything!!!.
The extension of Caesar’s command allowed the
continued immunity from prosecution.
The command was extended from March 1 54BC
to January 48BC under the Sullan constitution
Although relinquishing his unique position as the
only general in command of an army, his province
placed his army between Pompey’s command and
Rome
APPIAN
“ In the meantime Caesar, who had performed the many brilliant
exploits in Gaul and Britain which have been described in my Celtic
history, had returned with vast riches to Cisalpine Gaul on the river
Po to give his army a short respite from continuous fighting. From this
district he sent large sums of money to many persons in Rome, to those
who were holding the yearly offices and to persons otherwise
distinguished as governors and generals, and they went thither by
turns to meet him. So many of them came that 120 lictors could be seen
around him at one time, and more than 200 senators, some returning
thanks for what they had already received, others asking for money or
seeking some other advantage for themselves from the same quarter.
All things were now possible to Caesar by reason of his large army,
his great riches, and his readiness to oblige everybody. Pompey and
Crassus, his partners in the triumvirate, came also. In their conference
it was decided that Pompey and Crassus should be elected consuls
again and that Caesar's governorship over his provinces should be
extended for five years more.”
Brutal and Decisive
Annihilation and Criticism
“The Germans, when upon hearing a noise behind them, they looked
and saw their families were slain…fled out of the camp…..threw
themselves into the river and there perished”.
“ Caesar for those reasons, had resolved to cross the Rhine, but to cross by
ships he neither deemed to be sufficiently safe, nor consisted with his
own dignity or that of the Roman people. Therefore although the
greatest difficulty in forming a bridge was presented to him, on
account of the breadth, rapidity and depth of the river, he nevertheless
considered that it ought to be attempted by him..Within ten days after
the timber began to be collected, the whole work was completed.”
Cato at his Best!
» “But Tanusius states that when the
senate decreed festivals and
sacrifices for this victory, Cato
declared it to be his opinion that
Caesar ought to be given into the
hands of the barbarians, that so
the guilt which this breach of faith
might otherwise bring upon the
state might be expiated by
transferring the curse on him, who
was the occasion of it.”
Caesar invades Britain 55BC, 54BC
Although not fruitful, Caesar gains an enormous reputation for his
exploration into unknown territory.
Background and the Battles
August 55 BC --- Caesar (with 7th & 10th Legions + 500
Cavalry) invades Britain
– “Reconnaissance in force”
– Lands at DUBRA
• near DEAL on the coast of KENT
• “to learn of their localities, harbors, and landing-places”
– The landing was FIERCELY OPPOSED
• “Hand-to-hand” fighting in the surf !
– Landing supported by catapults & ballistae mounted on ships
– After truce (weather deteriorating), CAESAR stays
only 3 weeks then RETURNS TO GAUL for the winter
Background and the Battles
CAESAR’S Invasion Fleet:
–
–
–
–
800 Vessels (includes 28 warships)
5 Legions (approximately 20,000 troops)
2000 Gallic Cavalry
TOTAL OF 23,000
CAESAR lands unopposed on 7 July 54 BC
CAESAR marches inland (leaving 10 cohorts and 300 cavalry --- total of 4,000 for base security)
Britons of the S.E. are aware of the Roman Invasion
The Storm DESTROYS 40 Ships & Damages remainder
Caesar spends 10 days on repairs
19 July CAESAR sets out again on the march
Encounters Britons near old battlefield
CASSIVELLAUNUS attacks
British Chariots cause Roman confusion --- MOBILITY & SURPRISE !
Attack again repulsed
20 July CAESAR Sends out huge foraging party
CASSIVELLAUNUS boldly attacks again --- heavy Roman losses
“Battle of Canterbury”
21 July CAESAR continues on to the territory of the “Trinobantes”
Phalanx versus Guerilla
techniques
The very close-order drill and discipline that taught the
Roman legions to battle according to plan was a hindrance
in dealing with an enemy that "...never fought in close
array":
"Throughout this peculiar combat, which was fought in front of the
camp in full view of everyone, it was seen that our troops were too
heavily weighted by their armor to deal with such an enemy: they
could not pursue them when they retreated and dared not get
separated from their standards. The cavalry, too, found it very
dangerous work fighting the charioteers; for the Britons would
generally give ground on purpose and after drawing them some
distance from the legions would jump down from their chariots and
fight on foot, with the odds in their favor." B.G., V, 16.
54/53BC; Troublesome revolts
A major force of five legions (half of the army in Gaul)
was prepared for a second invasion of Britain in July of 54
BC. After a successful landing, the Romans marched as far
as the Thames and secured tribute from several British
tribes, among them the Trinovantes under Cassivellaunus
. Before a permanent camp could be established in Britain,
Caesar had to return to Gaul in September, as the Belgae
had convinced many Gallic tribes to rebel.
After a few skirmishes at the end of 54 BC, Caesar spent
all of 53 BC subduing the resurgent Belgae and other
rebellious tribes in the north such as the Nervii, Menapii,
and Treveri near the Rhine, as well as the Senones and
Carnutes.
A LOSS TO AMBIORIX 54BC
The Eburones under Ambiorix wiped out
the Roman legions under Cotta and Sabinus.
This was the Romans’ first defeat in Gaul.
They then besieged the troops under legate
Quintus Cicero’s command. When Caesar
heard he came to take command.
Cassius Dio
“Thus Cicero learned of the approach of Caesar, and so took courage
and held out more zealously.
But the barbarians for a long time knew nothing of the assistance
Caesar was bringing; for he journeyed by night, bivouacking by day in
very obscure places, in order that he might fall upon them as
unexpectedly as possible. But they finally grew suspicious because of
the excessive cheerfulness of the besieged and sent out scouts; and
learning from them that Caesar was already drawing near, they set out
against him, thinking to attack him while off his guard. He learned of it
in time and remained where he was that night, for the purpose of
appearing to have only a few followers, to have suffered from the
journey, and to fear an attack from them, and so in this manner to
draw them to the higher ground. And thus it turned out; for in their
contempt of him because of this move they charged up the hill, and met
with so severe a defeat that they carried on the war against him no
longer.”
Caesar’s words
“Considering these difficulties, I took every precaution that could be
taken. Even though the troops were burning with desire for revenge, I
thought it better to let go the opportunity of inflicting damage on the
enemy if it could be done only at the cost of losing some of my own
men. I sent messengers out to the neighboring tribes, and by offering
them the prospect of booty, called on them to join me in pillaging the
Eburones. My intention was to put Gauls rather than Roman
legionaries at risk in the forest, and, at the same time, to overwhelm
the Eburones with a huge force of men, and so wipe out that tribe and
its very name, as a punishment for the great crime it had committed.”
A Rare Defeat?
In 52 BC Gergovia was the stronghold of Vercingetorix. It is famous for being the
only place where Julius Caesar was defeated in the Gallic wars.
After conquering Avaricum, Caesar took six legions onward to Gergovia where he
attempted a siege. He was outnumbered when the Aedui, formerly the Romans'
allies, surprised Caesar by joining with Vercingetorix. As Caesar's army marched
towards the great Arverni hillfort of Gergovie, Vercingetorix was setting out with
his own army on the other side of the river Allier, breaking every bridge along the
way to be sure the Romans could not cross over. Caesar, however, hid two legions
in the woods. After Vercingetorix moved on, they rebuilt one of the bridges and
went on to attempt the siege of Gergovia.
The assault failed. Caesar in his writings blames the soldiers for initiating an
attack, without his orders. Whether this is true, what can be gauged is that it was
only a temporary setback. Over 700 soldiers and 40 centurions were lost in the
battle before Caesar drew back.
Through his determination, Caesar was able to extricate himself from this position, to
regather and motivate his troops to fight again. This ability was to be seen to his
advantage in the Civil War against Pompey.
Encouraged by this victory, the Gauls persisted in their revolt until their final
defeat at Alesia.
Relentless determination
Through his determination, Caesar was able
to extricate himself from this position, to
regather and motivate his troops to fight
again. This ability was to be seen to his
advantage in the Civil War against Pompey.
Major General Fuller
Caesar opened his Gergovia campaign by
dividing his army. His penalty was his
repulse; it had revealed to all Gaul that his
legions were not invincible. One thing alone
saved him - his own invincibility.
J.F.C. Fuller on Caesar's peril after defeat
at Gergovia, 52 BC, p. 145.
The Battle of Alesia. Who has the advantage?
Short Term? Long Term?
View the documentary and make notes on how Caesar defeated
Vercingetorix
Gauls unite under Vercingetorix
Intelligence and leadership.
“ As the action was carried on in sight of all, neither a brave nor
cowardly act could be concealed; both the desire of praise and the fear
of ignominy, urged on each party to valor….Caesar sends at first
young Brutus and afterwards Caius Fabius, his liutenant…….His
arrival being known from the colour of his robe….the enemy joined
battle.”
“Caesar on learning these proceedings from the deserters and captives,
adopted the following system of fortification”.
Caesar’s Siege Works
Archaeological evidence at Alesia
Vercingetorix surrenders to Caesar
Vercingetorix would walk in the Gallic triumph in 46 in Rome before his
traditional execution.
Plutarch, a favourable view!!!
" .the campaigns by which he subjugated Gaul proved him to be as
good a soldier and a commander as any of those who have been more
admired for their leadership and shown themselves to be the greatest
generals.we shall find that Caesar's achievements surpass them all.
He may be considered superior to one
because of the difficulty of the country in which he fought;
to another because of the extent of his conquests;
to another because of the number and strength of the enemy forces
which he defeated;
to another because of the savage treacherous character of the tribes
whose goodwill he won;
to another because of the reasonable and considerate way in which
he treated prisoners.
he surpassed them all in the fact that he fought more battles than any
of them and killed greater numbers of the enemy."
Major General Fuller; A negative view
“Like Cromwell Caesar was an amateur soldier of genius, neither trained nor
educated for war..The truth is that Caesar was not an organiser; careful
preparation- adequate supplies, sufficient fighting forces and many other
requirements needed to assure the success of a campaign were either
distasteful to him, or lost sight by reliance on his genius to solve all
difficulties…. His invasions of Britain were amateurish in the
extreme….Caesar mentions the deficiencies as if they were acts of gods rather
than his own negligence…It is also inexplicable why he never attempted to
raise, organise and train efficient cavalry and light infantry….These defects
in the organisation of Caesar’s army detrimentally influenced both his
strategy and tactics. His defective system of supply frequently compelled him
to change his area of operation to his disadvantage…and when his enemy took
to guerilla warfare, because of his lack of trained light infantry he could do
nothing to respond..It is astonishing that a soldier of his outstanding
intelligence could have failed to realize how defective his army organization
was.”
A fair comment or anachronistic?????????????????????
Father
figure
Generosity
Clemencia
Ability to
inspire
Success
Speed or
celeritas
Caesar’s
Relationship
with his
army
Perseverance
Personal
Knowledge
And
acknowledgement
Of
bravery
Personal
leadership
The Roman
province was
safe; Caesar
organized the
new territories,
permitting them
to pay their own
tribute
(preventing
victimization by
tax farmers) of
a relatively
moderate
40,000,000
sesterces
annually.
Inclusion of
Gaul in the
Roman
Empire
Caesar had
extended his
Clientale- seen as
Protector
Of Gaul
Large amount
Of booty sent
to Rome
The Legacy of
The Gallic Wars
Caesar’s
reputation
was
enhanced
Caesar’s
military
reputation now
equalled
Pompey
Caesar now
Had a massive
loyal, experienced
army
Gaul had
provided him
With massive
Wealth needed
To buy
Political support
"took by storm more than 800 cities, subdued 300 nations, and fought
pitched battles at various times with three million men, of whom he
destroyed one million in the actual fighting and took another million
prisoners“ Plutarch
A History of Rome-M Cary
“ For Caesar, his term in Gaul was the turning point in his career.
The war booty which he appropriated not only sufficed to pay off
his enormous private debts, but enabled him to buy political
services in Rome on a scale comparable to that of Crassus. He held
at his beck and call an invincible army that was ready to follow
him anywhere. Above all, it was as pro-consul of Gaul that he
found himself and brought into full play his latent powers as a
soldier and administrator. From this point Caesar’s actions betoken
a leader who is serenely conscious of his superior genius and regards
himself as a Man of Destiny.”
Historians Views- Michael Akinde
Compare with Suetonius assessment of his generalship.
“There can be no doubt that Caesar was an extremely competent
General, probably one of the best ever. He understood strategy and
tactics, and he could handle the brutish and greedy legionaries of his
time. He was almost always aware of the movements of his enemies
and usually secured both communications and supply lines in a
masterly fashion. His natural energy was turned into the feared
celeritas of Caesar, a swiftness of action that stunned his
contemporaries. Almost paradoxically, he could combine this swiftness
with extraordinary patience, and as a result was almost always able to
choose the time and place for his battles, or regain the initiative even in
the most difficult situations. His campaigns in Gaul had earned him a
large and devoted army; like in 61, Rome now waited with bated
breath for the return of a victorius general, Caesar.”
Historians Views-Suzanne Cross
“As the Gallic Wars had made Caesar's military prowess
the stuff of household fame, so Vercingetorix and the
Gallic alliance, in their first and last great attempt at
confederacy, showed barbarians throughout the Roman
world that, even united, Rome could not be defeated when
led by generals of genius. It is impossible to imagine
Caesar's future career without the political capital, wealth
and fighting skills he earned while contesting with the
warriors of Gaul for its future. It is impossible to imagine
the future history of France, Belgium, and so many
countries of Western Europe without Caesar's drive to be
first in Rome”
EXAM STYLE QUESTIONS
Explain the reasons for Caesar’s success in
the Gallic Wars 12AH1
With reference to the sources assess
Caesar’s significance as a general.12AH1
Assess the military achievements of Julius
Caesar 12AH2
Evaluate the significance of the Gallic Wars
for Caesar’s career.12AH2
Your turn
Divide into groups of 5 and compose a
response of 400 words to your chosen
question