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general surgery(三) Department of Pediatrics Soochow University Affiliated Children’s Hospital Acquired surgical abnormalities Pyloric stenosis Pyloric stenosis Definition Infantile hypertrophic pyloric stenosis (IHPS) is a common surgical condition encountered in early infancy, occurring in 2–3 per 1,000 live births. Pyloric stenosis Definition It is characterized by hypertrophy of the circular muscle, causing pyloric narrowing and elongation and producing partial or complete luminal occlusion. The incidence of the disease varies widely with geographic location, season, and ethnic origin. Boys are affected four times more than girls. Pyloric stenosis Description The appearance of the pylorus in IHPS is that of an enlarged, pale muscle mass usually measuring 2 to 2.5 cm in length and 1 to 1.5 cm in diameter. Pyloric stenosis Description Histologically the mucosa and adventitia are normal. There is marked muscle hypertrophy primarily involving the circular layer, which produces partial or complete luminal occlusion Pyloric stenosis symptoms The usual onset of symptoms occurs between 2 and 8 weeks of age with peak occurrence at 3–5 weeks of age. It has been rarely reported in premature infants, especially extremely low birth weight infants, and these premature infants with IHPS present the signs and symptoms 2–4 weeks later as compared to normal term infants. Pyloric stenosis symptoms The clinical features vary with the length of symptoms. Initially the vomiting may not be frequent and forceful, but over several days it progresses to every feeding and becomes forceful nonbilious vomiting described as “projectile”. The emesis consists of gastric contents, which may become blood tinged with protracted vomiting and likely related to gastritis, with “coffee-ground” appearance (17–18% of cases). Pyloric stenosis symptoms Infants with IHPS do not appear ill or febrile in the early stages. A significant delay in diagnosis leads to severe dehydration and weight loss due to inadequate fluid and calorie intake. Severe starvation can exacerbate diminished glucoronyl transferase activity and jaundice associated with indirect hyperbilirubimemia as seen in 2–5% of infants with IHPS. Pyloric stenosis symptoms It should be possible to diagnose IHPS on clinical features alone in 80–90% of infants. The important diagnostic features are visible gastric peristaltic waves in the left upper abdomen and a palpable enlarged pylorus (“olive” like mass). Pyloric stenosis Diagnosis cardinal features of IHPS: no bilious projectile vomiting visible peristaltic waves in the left upper abdomen Hypochloremic,hypokalemic alkalosis metabolic Pyloric stenosis Diagnosis Ultrasonography has become the most common imaging technique for the diagnosis of IHPS under optimal circumstances, this technique can be reliable. Pyloric stenosis Diagnosis The most commonly used criteria for a positive ultrasound study: a pyloric muscle thickness of 4 mm or more a pyloric channel length of 16 mm or more Pyloric stenosis Diagnosis A barium upper gastrointestinal (UGI) examination is highly effective in making the diagnosis of IHPS and should demonstrate an elongated pyloric channel and indentation on the antral outline, which are indirect findings of pyloric muscle enlargement . Barium meal study of IHPS. Narrowed elongated pyloric canal giving a “string” or “double track” sign caused by compressed invaginated folds of mucosa in the pyloric canal string sign double track sign Pyloric stenosis Treatment Pyloric stenosis can be cured with a surgical procedure called a pyloromyotomy. INTUSSUSCEPTION INTUSSUSCEPTION DEFINITION Intussusception is the most common cause of intestinal obstruction in children between 3 months and 6 years of age. It occurs when a portion of the bowel "telescopes" into itself, causing intestinal obstruction. Intussusception occurs most commonly in infants between 15 and 19 months of age with only 10–25% of cases occurring after 2 years of age. Although 90% of intussusceptions occur in children between 3 months to 3 years of age, it has also been reported in utero, in neonates, and in adults. INTUSSUSCEPTION EPIDEMIOLOGY Incidence 2 - 4 / 1000 live births Usual age group 3 months - 3 years Greatest incidence 6-12 months Male predominance (1.5-2 : 1) No clear hereditary association No seasonal distribution Frequently preceded by viral infection URI, ADENOVIRUS INTUSSUSCEPTION PATHOPHYSIOLOGY Precipitating mechanism unknown Obstruction of intussusceptum mesentery Venous and lymphatic obstruction Third spacing of fluid into bowel wall Ischemic necrosis occurs in both intussusceptum and intussuscipiens Pathologic bacterial translocation When older children develop intussusception, it is usually due to what is referred to as a pathologic lead point. A lead point is a recognizable anatomic abnormality that obstructs the bowel, thus initiating the process of intussusception. Meckel's diverticulum and lymphoma of the intestine are two classic examples of lead points. Intestinal tumors and polyps may also act as lead points. A pathologic lead point INTUSSUSCEPTION CLINICAL CHARACTERISTICS The clinical presentation is more typical in infants and is characterized by episodes of abdominal colic associated with drawing up the legs and crying. These episodes occur in 15–30 min intervals. In between episodes the infant is quiet. Initially there may be vomiting of undigested food and streaks of blood in the stools. INTUSSUSCEPTION CLINICAL CHARACTERISTICS Subsequently the child becomes lethargic between episodes, develops increasing abdominal distension, bilious vomiting, and passage of red currant jelly stools. Often these symptoms are preceded by an episode of diarrheal illness. Sometimes there is a history of change in diet with introduction of weaning foods. red currant jelly stools INTUSSUSCEPTION PHYSICAL EVALUATION On examination the child may be febrile and dehydrated with signs of shock in case of bowel ischemia. A curved sausage-shaped mass can be palpated anywhere in the abdomen when the infant is quiet. Rectal exam is positive for blood in 60–90% of cases. Rarely a cervix-shaped mass is seen protruding beyond the anal verge. INTUSSUSCEPTION The classic triad of incessant cry due to abdominal colic, red currant jelly stools, and a palpable abdominal mass has been reported in 20–60% of cases. INTUSSUSCEPTION Ultrasonography of the abdomen is often diagnostic for intussusception with a reported accuracy of up to 100% (Fig). The characteristic “target sign” is described as two rings of low echogenicity with an intervening hyperechoic ring similar to a donut. The edematous walls of the intussusception appear as superimposed hyperechoic and hypoechoic layers described as the pseudo-kidney sign. INTUSSUSCEPTION TREATMENT The initial management of children with intussusception begins with fluid resuscitation in the emergency room. The correction of dehydration is crucial before attempting reduction. Nasogastric decompression--argued that it is not indicated in children who do not present with vomiting. Antibiotic prophylaxis including anaerobic coverage is started. INTUSSUSCEPTION REDUCTION Nonoperative Reduction -pneumatic -hydrostatic reduction INTUSSUSCEPTION PNEUMATIC REDUCTION Pneumoenema is a cheap, safe, and effective option for the treatment of intussusception. Various studies have quoted success rates of 80–92% in reducing the Also, recurrences are less with air than barium and the morbidity is less should a perforation occur. INTUSSUSCEPTION HYDROSTATIC REDUCTION Hydrostatic barium enema reduction under fluoroscopic guidance is also successful in children and is the preferred option in some centers. Ultrasound-guided reduction using water (diluted with water-soluble contrast at a ratio of 9:1) has also been reported to have a success rate of 90% in the reduction of intussusception. INTUSSUSCEPTION NON-OPERATIVE REDUCTION CONTRAINDICATIONS Absolute Contraindications PERITONEAL SIGNS SUSPECTED PERFORATION Relative Contraindications SYMPTOMS > 24-48 HRS RECTAL BLEEDING POOR PROGNOSTIC INDICATORS INTUSSUSCEPTION FAILURE OF NON-OPERATIVE REDUCTION Factors associated with failure SYMPTOMS > 48 HRS RECTAL BLEEDING SMALL BOWEL OBSTRUCTION RADIOGRAPHICALLY ILEOILEOCOLIC OR SMALL BOWEL TYPES PRESENCE OF MECHANICAL LEAD POINT AGE < 3 MONTHS INTUSSUSCEPTION POST-REDUCTION TREATMENT Admit patient for 24 hours May attempt feeding within 12 hrs Return to fluoroscopy for suspected recurrence (occurs in ~ 4%) 1.CONSIDER PATHOLOGIC LEAD POINT 2.SCHEDULE MECKEL’S SCAN, ? ABDOMINAL CT May also recur up to one year Need to follow as outpatient INTUSSUSCEPTION Operative Reduction Operative MANUAL RESECTION AND REANASTAMOSIS If the attempts at nonoperative reduction are unsuccessful,the patient is shifted to the operating room for a laparotomy and manual reduction of intussusception. Meckel's diverticulum Meckel's diverticulum Definition Meckel's diverticulum is a congenital pouch (diverticulum) approximately two inches in length and located at the lower (distal) end of the small intestine. It was named for Johann F. Meckel, a German anatomist who first described the structure. Meckel's diverticulum Description The diverticulum is most easily described as a blind pouch that is a remnant of the omphalomesenteric duct or yolk sac that nourished the early embryo. It contains all layers of the intestine and may have ectopic tissue present from either the pancreas or stomach. Meckel's diverticulum Description The rule of 2s is the classical description. It is located about 2 ft from the end of the small intestine, is often about 2 in in length, occurs in about 2% of the population, is twice as common in males as females, and can contain two types of ectopic tissue-stomach or pancreas. Many who have a Meckel's diverticulum never have trouble but those that do present in the first two decades of life and often in the first two years. Meckel's diverticulum Description three major complications: Inflammation or infection Bleeding Obstruction Meckel's diverticulum Causes and symptoms Meckel's diverticulum is not hereditary. It is a vestigial remnant of the omphalomesenteric duct, an embryonic structure that becomes the intestine. As such, there is no genetic defect or abnormality. Meckel's diverticulum Causes and symptoms Symptoms usually occur in children under 10 years of age. There may be bleeding from the rectum, pain and vomiting, or simply tiredness and weakness from unnoticed blood loss. Meckel's diverticulum Causes and symptoms It is common for a Meckel's diverticulum to be mistaken for the much more common disease appendicitis. If there is obstruction, the abdomen will distend and there will be cramping pain and vomiting. Meckel's diverticulum Diagnosis The situation may be so acute that surgery is needed on an emergency basis. This is often the case with bowel obstruction. With heavy bleeding or severe pain, whatever the cause, surgery is required. The finer points of diagnosis can be accomplished when the abdomen is open for inspection during a surgical procedure. This situation is called an acute abdomen. Meckel's diverticulum Diagnosis If there is more time (not an emergency situation), the best way to diagnose Meckel's diverticulum is with a nuclear scan. A radioactive isotope injected into the bloodstream will accumulate at sites of bleeding or in stomach tissue. If a piece of stomach tissue or a pool of blood shows up in the lower intestine, Meckel's diverticulum is indicated. Meckel's diverticulum Treatment A Meckel's diverticulum that is causing discomfort, bleeding, or obstruction must be surgically removed. This procedure is very similar to an appendectomy. Meckel's diverticulum Prognosis The outcome after surgery is usually excellent. The source of bleeding, pain, or obstruction is removed so the symptoms also disappear. A Meckel's diverticulum will not return. Appendicitis Definition Acute appendicitis is the most common surgical emergency in childhood. Appendicitis may present at any age, although it is uncommon in preschool children. Approximately one-third of children with acute appendicitis have perforation by the time of operation. Appendicitis Definition Despite improved fluid resuscitation and better antibiotics, appendicitis in children, especially in preschool children, is still associated with significant morbidity. Left radiograph shows a barium filled cecum and appendix. In most people the appendix buds from the posteromedial wall of the cecum just slightly below the ileocecal valve. The radiograph on the right is a mesenteric arteriogram demonstrating the rich blood supply that spreads through the mesentery to supply the bowel and appendix. Appendicular and ileocolic arteries branches supply the appendix from the inferior mesenteric artery (arrow) McBurney’s point, two-thirds distance between the umbilicus and right anterior superior iliac spine Appendicitis diagnosis The diagnosis of acute appendicitis in childhood can sometimes be difficult. Definite diagnosis is made in only 43–72% of patients at the time of initial assessment. The rate of negative pediatric appendectomy is in the range 4–50% in various reports. The patient’s history and clinical examination are the most important tools for the diagnosis of appendicitis. Appendicitis diagnosis Periumbilical pain is often the first symptom, followed by vomiting and fever. When the inflammation progresses, the pain localizes to the right lower quadrant, and right lower quadrant tenderness develops. Appendices located in the retrocaecal position may cause pain, radiating to the back. Appendices in pelvic position may present with diarrhea. Appendicitis diagnosis Clinical examination in a typical case with appendicitis reveals tenderness, guarding and rigidity in the right lower quadrant of abdomen. Laboratory investigations and plain radiographs are neither sensitive nor specific in the diagnosis of appendicitis. Barium enema is an unreliable test because of its high falsepositive and false-negative rates. Appendicitis diagnosis In recent years, graded compression ultrasonography of the right lower quadrant has been shown to be a useful tool in the evaluation of patients with clinical findings that are suggestive but not diagnostic of appendicitis, with a sensitivity of 80–100%, a specificity of 78–98%, and an overall accuracy of 91%. Appendicitis diagnosis Ultrasound is portable, fast, and free of irradiation exposure, of modest incremental cost and of use in delineating gynecologic disease. However, it is of limited use in obese adolescents and is highly user dependent. The only sonographic sign that is specific for appendicitis is an enlarged, non-compressible appendix measuring greater than 6 mm in maximal diameter (Fig). The appendix may not be visible following perforation. Ultrasonography in a 12-year-old patient with acute appendicitis—enlarged and thickened (1.1 cm) appendix Appendicitis diagnosis Recently, computed tomography (CT) has been used as an adjunct to the diagnosis of appendicitis and appeared to have an immediate impact, reducing negative appendectomy rates to 4.1% and perforation rates to 14.7%. The principal advantages of CT are its operator independency and enhanced delineation of disease extent in perforated appendicitis. Sensitivity, specificity and accuracy for unenhanced limited CT have approached 97%, 100% and 99%, respectively. Appendicitis Treatment Non-perforated appendicitis Treatment for appendicitis is removal of the appendix (appendectomy). Patients receive antibiotics both before and after surgery. In some cases, laparoscopic surgery rather than open surgery is performed. This technique involves making a few small incisions in the belly and inserting a very small camera and surgical instruments. The pediatric surgeon then removes the appendix with the instruments. laparoscopic removal of the appendix Appendicitis Treatment Non-perforated appendicitis An open appendectomy involves one larger incision in the lower right side of the abdomen. Regardless of which surgical technique is used, if the appendix has not perforated, most children are able to go home from the hospital within 24-48 hours and are able to return to school in one week. Appendicitis Treatment Perforated appendicitis If the child's appendix is perforated, an open surgery is often done. The child is then treated with a course of antibiotics, which is often completed at home. Appendicitis Treatment Perforated appendicitis with abscess At times, when the appendix has perforated and the infection has localized to one area, an abscess forms. Treatment of the abscess includes drainage of the infection and a course of intravenous (IV) antibiotics. Appendicitis Treatment Perforated appendicitis with abscess Percutaneous (through the skin) drainage is done using ultrasound to help guide a small tube through the skin into the infected area in the belly. An appendectomy is then performed approximately 6-8 weeks after the infection has been treated. This CT image shows the entry needle advanced to the abscess This CT image demonstrates the successful placement of a drainage catheter into the abscess. Inflammatory Bowel Disease / IBD Definition Ulcerative colitis and Crohn's disease are called inflammatory bowel disease(s) / IBD. Ulcerative colitis and Crohn's disease have many similar symptoms (including diarrhea, rectal bleeding, and abdominal pain). These diseases are not contagious. Inflammatory Bowel Disease / IBD Definition About one million Americans have IBD. Thirty thousand new cases are diagnosed every year. Although the exact cause(s) of IBD is not known, these are thought to play a role in both diseases: A genetic tendency An environmental trigger The patient's immune system Bacteria that are normally in the intestine Inflammatory Bowel Disease / IBD Diagnosis Diagnosing these diseases requires several tests: Blood tests X-rays Endoscopy (looking inside the bowel with a flexible tube) Ulcerative colitis can be cured by removing the colon (colectomy). There is no cure for Crohn's disease Inflammatory Bowel Disease / IBD Treatment Medicine is tried first to help control inflammation for both ulcerative colitis and Crohn's disease. When inflammation is severe, steroids such as prednisone are used. In many cases, medications work to control both diseases, so surgery is not needed for a very long time Inflammatory Bowel Disease / IBD Treatment Surgery may be recommended when medicine cannot control the symptoms or when there are other medical problems. In ulcerative colitis, the disease is cured if the colon is removed. Surgery for Crohn's disease may help relieve constant symptoms or correct problems. It is not a cure for Crohn's disease because the disease usually comes back.