Download Metabolic syndrome

METABOLIC
SYNDROME
Rajeswari Arun PGY2
Objectives
• 1. Understand metabolic syndrome and identify
implications for pediatric populations.
• 2. Describe the pathophysiology and biochemical markers
implicated, identify its risk factors and clinical
associations.
• 3. Use treatment and management strategies for children
at risk.
• 4. Recognize future research directions in pediatric
metabolic syndrome
What is MetS?
• A constellation of metabolic risk factors associated with
the development of atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease
and type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) in adults.
• In the beginning of the past century, Swedish and Spanish
physicians Kylin and Marañon independently described
the frequent copresentation of diabetes mellitus (DM) and
hypertension.
• Gerald Reaven introduced the concept of insulin
resistance.
• Current definitions of MetS now include
Hyperinsulinemia or insulin resistance
Dyslipidemia,
Hypertension, and
Obesity, with a particular emphasis on central adiposity
Diagnostic difficulties
• Over the past 15 years, several organizations have
proposed diagnostic criteria to better define MetS in
adults.
• In 2009, representative members from the AHA, NHLBI,
IDF, and several other major organizations released a
joint interim statement proposing a unified set of common
criteria for adult MetS.
• Each of the 5 clinical measures (body weight, TGs, HDL,
blood pressure [BP], and glucose) was given a single set
of categorical cut points;
• An exception was waist circumference (WC), which was
defined by population and country-specific definitions.
Challenges in children
• Physiologic changes that occur during growth and
development throughout childhood and puberty.
Eg: Insulin resistance and lipid profiles vary across ages.
• Lack of definitive normal ranges of insulin levels
throughout childhood and puberty; and
• Absence of WC parameters to define central obesity
associated with morbidity related to MetS in the pediatric
population
• In 2007, the IDF published a proposed set of criteria
specific to children and adolescents to provide guidance
on establishing a unified definition for pediatric MetS.
Prevalence
• NHANES 1999–2002 found that the prevalence of
pediatric MetS ranged from 2% to 9% in the general
population and from 12% to 44% in obese children.
• Racial and ethnic distributions are similar to adults
Instability in diagnosis
• 46% of those diagnosed as having MetS at baseline did
not meet the diagnostic criteria for MetS at long-term
follow up.
• The lack of stability in diagnosis raises several questions
regarding screening: esp when and how to screen
children at risk for MetS.
• Diagnostic uncertainty affects the ability to devise
appropriate management strategies.
Other questions
• Long-term outcomes are not well established.
• Limited data exist to support the direct relationship
between pediatric MetS and subsequent progression
to adult cardiovascular outcomes and T2DM.
• Categorical definition of MetS is no better than
screening with high BMI to identify risk of long term
outcomes.
• A stronger correlation of pediatric MetS with the
persistence of multiple cardiovascular risk clustering over
an 8-year period, compared with individual risk factors
alone .
• Suggests that these risk factors may reinforce each other
and track together as a group.
• Studies also appear to indicate an association between
pediatric MetS with both subclinical cardiovascular
disease in young adults and T2DM.
Etiology
• Insulin resistance and hyperinsulinemia are thought to be
central to the development of MetS.
• Peripheral effects of insulin resistance on various organ
systems is thought to explain some of the differences in
the expression of MetS and its associated conditions such
polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS), NAFLD, and
obstructive sleep apnea.
Other factors
• Not all individuals who have insulin resistance proceed to
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develop MetS, suggesting that other factors may be
contributing to the pathogenesis of MetS.
Obesity, particularly abdominal or visceral obesity,
Inflammatory mediators, adipocytokines, cortisol,
oxidative stress,
Genetic predisposition
Lifestyle characteristics: physical inactivity, diet
Risk factors
• Heredity
• Ethnicity
• Physical inactivity
• Tobacco exposure
Heredity
• Familial clustering for MetS risk factors is seen in several
studies
• Children of parents who have early coronary artery
disease in the Bogalusa Heart Study were more likely to
be overweight beginning in childhood and commonly
presented with components of MetS
• Children having at least 1 parent who has MetS have
significantly higher levels of central obesity and insulin
resistance.
• Affect black and Hispanic children disproportionately more
than white children
• The rates of MetS in black youth are lower than in nonHispanic white or Hispanic children.
• In contrast, when using lipid thresholds specific to black
individuals, the prevalence of MetS among black youth
was similar to non-Hispanic white and Hispanic children.
Physical inactivity
• Physical activity alone improves several cardiovascular
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risks.
Physical activity is associated independently with
improved insulin sensitivity;
Lower LDL and TG and higher HDL concentrations
Improved endothelial function, such as reduced systolic
and diastolic BPs, arterial stiffness, and arterial wall
remodeling in prepubertal obese children.
Additionally, increased physical activity appears to have
an anti-inflammatory effect
Tobacco use
• Significant risk factor for cardiovascular disease and also
associated independently as a risk factor for MetS.
• Dose–response relationship between tobacco smoke and
MetS among adolescents
Clinical features
• Obesity
• Dyslipidemia
• Hypertension
• Glucose intolerance, Type 2 DM
• Inflammation
• Other clinical considerations: PCOS, NAFLD
Obesity
• Strong association between obesity with insulin
resistance, T2DM, and atherosclerotic cardiovascular
disease.
• Specifically, abdominal obesity
-Due to accumulation of visceral fat
-Associated with increased cardiovascular risk independent
of total body fat in adult populations.
• BMI does not always reflect central adiposity
• BMI cannot differentiate the contributions made by
muscle, bone, and fat.
Waist circumference
• WC and waist-to-hip ratio : suggested surrogates to
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determine the degree of visceral fat.
WC is an independent predictor of insulin resistance in
youth,
High WC associated with hypertension and dyslipidemia.
For these reasons, WC has been suggested as a more
reliable measure for predicting MetS than BMI alone.
At this time, however, routine use not recommended
because of insufficient information and lack of specific
guidance for clinical application
Dyslipidemias
• High TG and low HDL cholesterol levels, are strongly
associated with insulin resistance in children and
adolescents.
• Mechanism:
 Increased flux in free fatty acid delivery to the liver,
 Hepatic insensitivity to the inhibitory effects of insulin on
VLDL secretion
 Overproduction of TG-rich VLDL particles.
• Mediated by abnormal levels of inflammatory markers,
such as adipokines and cytokines, associated with
visceral obesity.
• HDL cholesterol metabolism also is altered by increased
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levels of VLDL through the
Activation of hepatic lipase,
Forming small dense LDL
Increasing clearance of HDL from the circulation.
Small dense LDL- has increased atherogenic potential, is
associated with abdominal obesity, visceral fat, and insulin
resistance in adults and children.
Hypertension
• The association between insulin resistance and essential
hypertension is well established,
• Insulin has vasodilatory effect due to stimulation of
endothelial production of nitric oxide
• Even before any evidence of glucose intolerance,
endothelial dysfunction and the vasodilatory response
frequently are blunted.
• Other causes are effect of insulin sodium reabsorption,
increased sympathetic tone due to hyperinsulinemia and
obesity, and indirect impairment of vasodilation from the
presence of fatty acids.
Cluster> individual
• The cluster of metabolic abnormalities associated with
MetS may have an effect on BP greater than each of the
individual factors alone. .
• This clustering effect supports the importance of
considering MetS as a unique collective entity rather than
just considering independent risk factors to determine
cardiovascular risk.
Glucose intoleranc and Type 2 DM
• The spectrum of diseases related to impairments in
glucose metabolism and hyperglycemia results from
either
• Defects in insulin action,
• Ineffective secretion or clearance of insulin, or
• A combination of those pathophysiologic causes.
The development of insulin resistance leading to an
impaired fasting glucose level or IGT and on to T2DM is
documented in both adult and pediatric populations.
All IGT does not progress into DM
• Weiss et al followed obese youth who have IGT over a
12-month period : 46% reverted to normal glucose
tolerance, 30% continued to have IGT, and 24%
progressed to T2DM.
• The same study demonstrated that all of the children who
did eventually develop T2DM had started initially from an
IGT state, suggesting that IGT could be considered a
“prediabetic” state.
Inflammation
• Obesity as a chronic, low-level proinflammatory state and the
association of MetS with inflammation has been reported.
• Elevations of C-reactive protein, a biomarker that has been
implicated in negative cardiovascular outcomes, is observed in
obese children.
• Other potential inflammatory markers, including
adipocytokines, interleukin-6, tumor necrosis factor-alpha, and
interleukin-18, with some evidence for a direct association with
obesity, insulin resistance, and dyslipidemia
• Recognition of the role of inflammation and its associations
with MetS and cardiovascular disease is important to note
among the clinical features of MetS .
Associated conditions
• Hyperandrogenism is a risk factor for MetS independent
of insulin resistance and obesity
• There is a fourfold increase in the prevalence of MetS in
women who have PCOS.
• Adolescent girls who have PCOS should therefore be
screened for other metabolic abnormalities, including high
BP, dyslipidemia, and impaired glucose metabolism.
NAFLD
• A clinicopathologic syndrome ranging from simple
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steatosis to steatohepatitis, fibrosis, or cirrhosis of the
liver.
Associated with dyslipidemia, obesity, and insulin
resistance
Considered a strong predictor of MetS and future
cardiovascular disease and T2DM, as well.
Diagnosis is challenging because a liver biopsy is
required;
However, noninvasive measurement of biochemical
markers and ultrasonographic imaging of the liver may
indicate the diagnosis in children.
Screening
• Multifaceted and comprehensive approach to assess
cardiovascular risk.
• In the recently released NHLBI Expert Panel on Integrated
Guidelines for Cardiovascular Health and Risk Reduction in
Children and Adolescents, children who are obese should have
further evaluation for other specific cardiovascular risk factors,
Family history,
Growth and development,
Nutritional intake,
Assessment of physical activity,
BP, lipid profile, and
Evidence of insulin resistance and DM,
Tobacco exposure
Management
• Treatment targets overweight and physical inactivity in the
management of obesity.
• The 2011 NHLBI report recommends prompt
intensification of weight loss + management of any
coexisting associated cardiovascular risk factors.
• Effective weight management : improvements can be
seen even with relatively small weight changes.
• Lifestyle modifications
Smart moves
• Assessing patient and family motivation and willingness to
adopt healthier lifestyles frequent scheduled visits
• Helping them to identify creative strategies& work towards
small, manageable goals:
Increasing family meals together,
Writing exercise prescriptions, and
Scheduling activities with friends
Medications?
• No specific indications or guidelines on the use of
pharmacologic agents for treatment of MetS.
• Medications for treatment of hypertension, dyslipidemia,
and DM should be considered where appropriate.
• Metformin has been used effectively for weight reduction
and improving glucose tolerance for children who have
T2DM in small studies.
• Rosiglitazone, a thiazolidinedione derivative, also has
shown promise in restoring normal glucose tolerance in
obese children who have IGT in a recently published pilot
study.
Future research- priorities
• Identification of better definitions of obesity in children;
• Development of age-, gender-, and ethnic-specific ranges
for the categorical criteria used to define MetS;
• Initiation of long-term cohorts of children from diverse
backgrounds to understand better the natural history and
outcomes of MetS;
• Assessment of the effectiveness of prevention and
intervention strategies.