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Slide 1
Sociology in Modules
chapter
two
Richard T. Schaefer
1st Edition
Sociological Research
© 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Slide 2
Sociological Research
2
•Module 5: What is the Scientific Method?
•Module 6: Major Research Designs
•Module 7: Ethics of Research
•Module 8: Developments of Methodology
© 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Slide 3
A Look Ahead
█
█
█
How do sociologists go about
setting up a research project?
How do they ensure that their
results are reliable and accurate?
Can they avoid violating the
rights of those they study?
© 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Module 5
Slide 4
What is the
Scientific Method?
█
Systematic,
organized series of
steps that ensures
maximum objectivity
and consistency
in researching
a problem
© 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Module 5
Slide 5
Figure 5-1: The Scientific Method
© 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Module 5
Slide 6
Scientific Method
█
Defining the Problem
– Operational definition: Explanation of an
abstract concept that is specific enough
to allow researchers to assess the concept
█
Reviewing the Literature
Refines problem under study
© 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Module 5
Slide 7
Scientific Method
█
Formulating the Hypothesis
– Hypothesis: Speculative statement
about the relationship between two
or more factors known as variables
– Variable: Measurable trait or characteristic
subject to change under different conditions
• Independent variable: Variable hypothesized to
cause or influence another
• Dependent variable: Action depends
on the influence of the independent variable
© 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Module 5
Slide 8
Scientific Method
█
Formulating the Hypothesis
– Causal logic: Involves relationships
between a condition or variable and a
particular consequence, with one event
leading to the other
– Correlation: Exists when change in one
variable coincides with change in another
Correlation does not
necessarily indicate causation
© 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Module 5
Slide 9
Figure 5-2: Educational Level and
Household Income in the United States
© 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Module 5
Slide 10
Figure 5-3: Causal Logic
© 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Module 5
Slide 11
Collecting and Analyzing Data
█
Selecting the Sample
– Sample: Selection from a larger population
that is statistically typical of that population
– Random sample: When every member
of a population has the same chance
of being selected
– Snowball samples – participants
recruited through word of mouth or
by posting notices on the Internet
© 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Module 5
Slide 12
Collecting and Analyzing Data
█
Ensuring Validity and Reliability
– Validity: Degree to which
the measure reflects the
phenomenon being studied
– Reliability: Extent to
which the measure
provides consistent results
© 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Module 5
Slide 13
Developing the Conclusion
█
Supporting the Hypothesis
– Sociological studies do not always generate
data that support original hypothesis
– Controlling for other factors
Control variable:
Factor held constant to test the
impact of the independent variable
© 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Module 5
Slide 14
Figure 5-4: Impact of a College Education on Income
© 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Module 6
Slide 15
Major Research Designs
█
Research design: Detailed plan or
method for obtaining data scientifically
–
–
–
–
Surveys
Observation
Experiments
Existing sources
© 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Module 6
Slide 16
Surveys
█
Study that provides sociologists with
information about how people act or think
– Interview:
Researcher obtains
information through
face-to-face or
telephone questioning
– Questionnaire:
Researcher uses
printed or written form
to obtain information
from respondent
© 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Module 6
Slide 17
Surveys
█
█
Quantitative research:
Collects and reports data
primarily in numerical form
Qualitative research:
Relies on what is
seen in field and
naturalistic settings;
often focuses on small
groups and communities
© 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Module 6
Slide 18
Research Today
█
Surveying Cell Phone Users
– Are you a cell phone-only user?
If so, do you generally accept
calls from unknown numbers?
– Which of the problems that arise during
telephone surveys might also arise
during Internet surveys? Might Internet
surveys involve some unique problems?
© 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Module 6
Slide 19
Observation
█
Collecting information through
direct participation and/or by closely
watching a group or community
– Observation: Sociologist joins group to
get accurate sense of how it operates
– Ethnography: Efforts to describe
an entire social setting through
extended systematic observation
© 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Module 6
Slide 20
Experiments
█
Artificially created situation that allows
researcher to manipulate variables
– Experimental group:
Exposed to independent variable
– Control group: Not
exposed to independent variable
– Hawthorne Effect: Unintended influence
of observers or experiments on subjects
© 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Module 6
Slide 21
Use of Existing Sources
█
Secondary analysis: Research
techniques that make use of
previously collected and publicly
accessible information and data
Content analysis: Systematic
coding and objective recording
of data, guided by some rationale
© 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Module 6
Slide 22
Research Today
█
What’s In a Name?
– According to www.babynamewizard.com,
how popular is your first name?
Is it becoming more or less
fashionable over time?
– Using the Name Mapper feature at
www.babynamewizard.com, find out how
popular your name is in the state where
you were born.
© 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Module 7
Slide 23
Ethics of Research
█
Code of Ethics (ASA, 1997)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Maintain objectivity and integrity in research
Respect subjects’ right to privacy and dignity
Protect subjects from personal harm
Preserve confidentiality
Seek informed consent
Acknowledge collaboration and assistance
Disclose sources of financial support
© 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Module 7
Slide 24
Ethics of Research
█
Confidentiality
Conflict of Interest
█ Value Neutrality
█
– Investigators have ethical
obligation to accept research
findings even when the data run
counter to their personal views,
to theoretically based explanations,
or to widely accepted beliefs
© 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Module 8
Slide 25
Feminist Methodology
█
Feminist perspective had greatest impact
on current generation of researchers
– See work and family as closely integrated
– Noted that studies tend to overlook women
– Questioned commonly
accepted methodological techniques
– Tend to involve and consult
subjects more than other researchers
– More oriented toward seeking change, raising
public consciousness, and influencing policy
© 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Module 8
Slide 26
Technology and
Sociological Research
█
Extends range and
capability to conduct research
Allows researchers
to store and
analyze large
amounts of information
█ Web-based surveys
in early stages, but
have basic limitation
█
© 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Module 8
Slide 27
Studying Human Sexuality
█
Understanding the Issue
– Kaiser Family Foundation found
more than two-thirds of TV
shows include some sexual content
– How does one carry out
scientific research on such
a controversial and personal topic?
© 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Module 8
Slide 28
Studying Human Sexuality
█
Applying Sociology
– Little reliable national data on
patterns of sexual behavior in U.S.
– Government funding for studies
of sexual behavior is controversial
© 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Module 8
Slide 29
Studying Human Sexuality
█
Applying Sociology
– Federal government is major source of
funding for sociological research
– ASA’s Code of Ethics does not address
whether sociologists who accept funding
from a particular agency or corporation
may also accept the agency’s perspective
on what needs to be studied
© 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Module 8
Slide 30
Studying Human Sexuality
█
Initiating Policy
– In 1991, U.S. Senate forbid funding
any survey on adult sexual practices
– Laumann, Gagnon, Michaels, and Michael
developed NHSLS to better understand
sexual practices of adults in U.S.
– Used $1.6 million of private
funding to fund research
© 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Module 8
Slide 31
Figure 8-1: Percentage of Television
Shows that Contain Sexual Content
© 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Module 8
Slide 32
Figure 8-2: Median Age of First Sex
© 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Appendix I
Slide 33
Using Statistics
█
Percentage: Shows portion of 100
Mean: Average; sum of a series of values
divided by the number of values
█ Mode: Single most common value in a
series of values
█ Median: Midpoint that divides a series of
values into two groups with equal
numbers of values
█
© 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Appendix I
Slide 34
Reading Graphs
█
Tables allow social scientists
to display data and make it
easier to develop conclusions
– Cross-tabulation: Shows
relationship between two or more variables
Graphs are often easier for
the general public to understand
© 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Appendix I
Slide 35
Figure A-3: Changing Attitudes
Toward the Legalization of Marijuana
© 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Appendix I
Slide 36
Figure A-4: People Who Favor Legalization
of Marijuana by Gender and Age, 2009
© 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Appendix II
Slide 37
Writing a Research Report
█
Finding Information
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–
–
–
–
–
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Check textbooks
Use library catalog
Use computerized periodical indexes
Examine government documents
Use newspapers
Ask people, organizations, and agencies
Consult instructor
© 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Appendix II
Slide 38
Writing a Research Report
█
Writing the Report
–
–
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–
█
Focus on topic
Develop an outline
Work ahead of deadline
Read paper aloud
Including Citations and References
© 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.