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Sociological Research
Sociology 101
A Look Ahead
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How do sociologists go about setting up a
research project?
How do they ensure that the results of the
research are reliable and accurate?
Can they carry out their research without
violating the rights of those
they study?
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Sociology is a science because it uses the
same techniques as other sciences
Explaining social phenomena is what
sociological theory is all about
Sociological theory is much more than
speculation
Sociologists typically conduct two types of
empirical studies.
1.
Descriptive studies
designed to find out what is happening to
whom, where, and when.
2.
Explanatory studies
answer the questions why and how.
What is the
Scientific Method?
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Systematic, organized
series of steps that
ensures maximum
objectivity and
consistency in
researching a problem
Figure 2-1: The Scientific Method
Scientific Method?
Defining the Problem
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State as clearly as possible what you hope to
investigate
Operational Definition: explanation of
abstract concept that is specific enough to
allow a researcher to assess the concept
Reviewing the Literature
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Refines the problem under study
Helps us decide what questions to ask.
Formulate a Hypothesis
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A tentative assumption.
A statement that speculates the relationship
between two or more variables.
Variable - A trait or characteristic that is subject
to change under different conditions.
Types of Variables
 Independent variable: variable hypothesized
to cause or influence another
 Dependent variable: action depends on the
influence of the independent variable to affect
its action
What is the Scientific Method?
Figure 2-3. Causal Logic
Causal Logic: Involves relationships between a
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condition or variable and a particular
consequence, with one event leading to the
other
Correlation does not necessarily indicate
causation.
correlations not based on causal connections
are called spurious correlations
Correlation is when a change in one variables is
associated in some way with a change in another
variable.
Positive versus Negative Correlations
Collecting Data: Selecting the
Sample
Research Design
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Detailed plan or
method for obtaining
data scientifically
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Sample: selection from a larger population
that is statistically typical of that population
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Random Sample: when every member of an
entire population has the same chance of
being selected
Surveys
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Study, generally in form of an interview or
questionnaire, that provide sociologists with
information about how people act or think
Interview
researcher obtains
information through faceto-face or telephone
questioning
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Questionnaire
researcher uses a
printed or written form to
obtain information from a
respondent
Surveys
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Quantitative research: Collects and
reports data primarily in numerical form
Qualitative research: Relies on what is
seen in field and naturalistic settings; often
focuses on small groups and communities
Observation
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Collecting information through direct participation
and/or by closely watching a group or community
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Participant observation: when sociologist joins a
group for a period to get an accurate sense of
how it operates
Ethnography: efforts to describe entire social
setting through extended systematic observation
Experiments
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Artificially created situation that allows researcher
to manipulate variables
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Experimental group: exposed to independent
variable
Control group: not exposed to independent
variable
Hawthorne Effect: unintended influence of
observers or experiments on subjects
Use of Existing Sources
Use of Existing Sources
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Secondary Analysis: research techniques that
make use of previously collected and publicly
accessible information and data
A. Uniform Crime Reports - The annual
publication of the FBI presenting official statistics
on the rates and trends in crime in the USA.
Table 2-1: Existing Sources Used in
Sociological Research
Table 2-2: Major Research Designs
b. NORC - National Opinion Research Center.
Analyzing the Data
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Statistical analysis
Developing the Conclusion
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Supporting the Hypothesis
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Sociological studies do not always generate data
that support the original hypothesis
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Controlling for Other Factors
Control Variable:
factor that is held constant to test the impact
of the independent variable
Figure 2-4: Impact of a College Education on
Income
Table 2-1: Top Reasons Why Men and Women
had Sex
Table 2-2: Existing Sources Used in Sociological
Research
Table 2-3: Major Research Designs
Ethics of Research
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Code of Ethics (ASA, 1997)
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Maintain objectivity and integrity in research
Respect subjects’ right to privacy and dignity
Protect subjects from personal harm
Preserve confidentiality
Seek informed consent
Acknowledge collaboration and assistance
Disclose sources of financial support
Ethics of Research
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Confidentiality
Research Funding
█ Value Neutrality
█ Feminist Methodology
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Technology and
Sociological Research
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Extends range and capability
to conduct research
Allows researchers to
store and analyze
large amounts of
information
█ Web-based surveys in
early stages, but initial
results promising
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Studying Human Sexuality
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The Issue
– Kaiser Family Foundation found more
than two-thirds of TV shows include
some sexual content
– How does one carry out scientific
research on such a controversial
and personal topic?
Studying Human Sexuality
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The Setting
– Little reliable national data on patterns of
sexual behavior in U.S.
– Government funding for studies of sexual
behavior is controversial
Studying Human Sexuality
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Sociological Insights
– Federal government is major source of
funding for sociological research
– ASA’s Code of Ethics does not address
whether sociologists who accept funding
from a particular agency or corporation
may also accept the agency’s perspective
on what needs to be studied
Studying Human Sexuality
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Policy Initiatives
– In 1991, U.S. Senate forbid funding any
survey on adult sexual practices
– Gagnon, Michaels, and Michael developed
NHSLS to better understand sexual
practices of adults in U.S.
– Used $1.6 million of private funding
to fund research
Figure 2-5: Percent of Television Shows that
Contain Sexual Content
Using Statistics
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Percentage: Shows portion of 100
Mean: Average; sum of a series of values
divided by the number of values
█ Mode: Single most common value in a
series of values
█ Median: Midpoint that divides a series of
values into two groups with equal
numbers of values
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Reading Graphs and Tables
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Tables allow social scientists to
display data and make it easier to
develop conclusions
– Cross-tabulation: Shows relationship
between two or more variables
Graphs are often easier for the general
public to understand
Figure 2-6: Changing Attitudes toward
Legalization of Marijuana
Figure 2-7: Changing Attitudes toward
Legalization of Marijuana by Gender and Age
Writing a Research Report
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Finding Information
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Check textbooks
Use library catalog
Use computerized periodical indexes
Examine government documents
Use newspapers
Ask people, organizations, and agencies
Consult instructor
Writing a Research Report
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Writing the Report
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Focus on topic
Develop an outline
Work ahead of deadline
Read paper aloud
Including Citations and References