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Birth of Modern Thought The New Reading Public Literacy improved Governments undertook state-financed education Skills in reading writing, and arithmetic taught Education Necessary for orderly political behavior More productive labor force Right knowledge leads to right actionenlightenment faith Reading Material Literate population created new market for new reading material Newspapers alerted new products through second Industrial Revolution Books/journals creating material is mediocre Poor writing for poor readers • Crime stories, political scandal, and advertising • Pornography popular • Political editorials influenced politics Science at Mid Century Science very strong in the universities in the mid 19th century From mid-19th century- Science and Technology connected. Government saw a purpose to support science as it would expand technology Science- Auguste Comte Model for all human knowledge Comte argued human thought had 3 stages • Theoretical stage: Physical nature explained in terms of actions of spirits/divinities • Metaphysical State: Abstract principles regarded as operative agencies of nature. • Positive State: Explanation of nature becomes exact description of phenomena. Believed laws of social behavior discovered in same way as laws of physical nature Comte regarded as father of sociology Religion of science that explain nature without resorting to supernaturalism Populizers lectured on scientific topics: science answer to major questions of life Darwin’s Theory Organisms with advantages survive and live to increase population survival of the fittest Body parts developed mechanistically Undermined Bible, deism, and fixity of nature Physical and organic nature constantly changing Made people believe society, values, customs, and beliefs should also change Science and Ethics Philosophers modeled ethics on science Herbert Spencer Same concept to survival of human social relationships Human society progressed through competition Avoid aiding poor Advocate aggressive competition between nations Social Darwinism- Evolutionary ethics: “Might makes right” Thomas Henry Huxley Defender of Darwin Physical cosmic process of evolution at odds with process of human ethical development Struggle held no ethical implications except to demonstrate how human being should not behave Christianity and the Church under Siege Difficult time for Christian churches intellectuals left faith Nation-states attacked influence Population attacked organization • church still remained popular Intellectual Skepticism • Intellectual attack challenged credibility, accuracy and morality • History • David Strauss - The Life of Jesus • claimed Jesus was a myth/ metaphor • scholars contended human authors had edited bible for problems and politics and Jews • Questioning caused the most people to lose faith Science • Science undermined Christianity • in 18th century, science supported faith • Charles Lyell suggested earth older than biblical records and removed God’s hand from natural disasters • Darwin attacked the Creation • Anthropologists said religions sentiments are just one more set of natural phenomena Morality • Immoral biblical stories • Differences between Old & New Testament • Friedrich Nietzsche showed Christianity glorified weakness • Secularism of everyday life proved as harmful as direct attacks • Whole generations in cities grew up w/o Christianity Conflict Between Church and State • The secular state clashed with Protestant and Catholic churches • liberals disliked dogma/political privileges • primary area of conflict was education • religions education debated • Great Britain • Education Act of 1870 provided statesupported schools • all churches opposed improvements in education • Increased cost of church schools • Educational Act 1902, govt. supported religious and secular schools France • Falloux Law of 1850 • local priest provided religious education • Third Republic & Cath Church loathed each other • Jules Ferry passed laws replacing religious instruction with civic training • After Dreyfus affair • pro-Dreyfus govt. of Pierre Waldeck • Rousseau suppressed religious orders • 1905, Napoleonic Concordat terminated and church and state were separated Germany and the Kulturkampf • After unification, • Bismarck felt Roman Cath Church threatened unity • Removed clergy from education • “May Laws” of 1873 • Required priests to pass state exams • Abolished power of pope • Bismarck arrested and expelled most Cath bishops from Prussia • Bismarck’s Kulturkampf (cultural struggle) against Cath Church failed, was a great blunder for him Areas of Religious Revival • All over Europe • Catholic churches were revived • Gave attention to urban poor • Final great effort to Christianize Europe • Well organized led and financed •failed only because population of Europe outstripped resources of churches The Roman Church and the Modern World • Pope Pius IX issued the Syllabus of Errors • set Cath Church against science/philosophy/politics • 1869, First Vatican Council • Council introduced dogma of papal infallibility on faith/ morals • Spiritual authority became substitute for lost political/temporal authority • Pius succeeded by Leo XIII • pronounced Rerum Novarum(1891) • Defended private property/religious education • Condemned socialism/Marxism • supported laws to protect workers • wanted corporate society, not socialism/capitalism • Leo succeeded by Pius X • condemned Catholic modernism • required all priests to take anti-Modernist oath • struggle b/t Catholicism/modern thought resumed Islam and Late-NineteenthCentury European Thought • Islam seen as product of culture • seen as incapable of developing science/new ideas • Opposed by Jamal al-din Al-Afghani • Argued that Islam would eventually produce modern cultures • European racial/cultural outlooks directed toward Arab world, • championed white racial supremacy • reinforced by Christian missionaries, • founded schools/hospitals, didn’t convert many (penalty for abjuring Islam is death) • Within Islamic world • some thinkers (the Salafi) wanted to combine modern thought w/reformed Islam • led Muslims to oppose Western influence • some movements simply rejected Western thought Toward a TwentiethCentury Frame of Mind Philosophers, scientists, psychologist artists started showing reality human nature/society challenged major presuppositions of mid-19th century thought Science: The Revolution in Physics • Discontent present over realism of 19th century science • Ernst Mach • The Science of Mechanics: • urged to consider concepts descriptive of scientific observer as well as physical world • by WWI scientist saw themselves as recording observations of instruments and offering models of nature X Rays and Radiation • • • • Dec 1895 Wilhelm Roentgen published paper on X rays 1896 Henri Becquerel discovered same w/uranium J.J. Thompson imagined electrons 1902 Rutherford explained cause of radiation Theories of Quantum Energy Relativity, and Uncertainty • Max Planck theorized energy in packets 1900 • 1905 Albert Einstein published papers on time/space continuum • 1927, Heisenberg made uncertainty principle • scientists continued to get money from govt.s by relating discovery with economic and military Literature: Realism and Naturalism • Morals went through changes • realist movement showed hypocrisy brutality and dullness in bourgeois life • used scientific objectivity/observation • Charles Dickens and Honore de Balzac showed cruel industrial life based on $ • George Eliot used detailed characters • all used artistry/imagination • major figures of late-century realism showed dreary/unseemly side of life Flaubert and Zola • Gustave Flaubert’s Madame Bovary was 1st realistic novel • Emile Zola • believed absolute physical and psychological determinism ruled human events, • published lots of novels exploring taboo subjects • worldwide following Ibsen and Shaw • Henrik Ibsen • Playwright • stripped away illusory mask of morality • Ibsen’s champion George Shaw • made own realistic onslaught against romanticism/respectability • Realist writers hoped to change moral perception • often left readers unable to sustain old values and uncertain where to find new ones Modernism • Touched all arts, critical of middle-class society/morality • Concerned for aesthetic/beautiful • Walter Patter: said art tries to achieve condition of music • Modernists thought art should influence others, painters gave works musical titles, • • • • • musicians combined sources Picasso used multiple angles; Some rejected traditional forms entirely Bloomsbury Group: chief proponents of modernism English • Keynesian economics challenged much of 19th economic structure On Continent • Marcel Proust used stream-of-consciousness format • Thomas Mann explored social experiences • James Joyce transformed structure of the paragraph • Modernism arose before and flourished after WWI afterwards • readers less shocked The Coming of Modern Art Create notes on the following topics Impressionism Post-Impressionism Cubism Work on this Unit’s Art Analysis Assignment Friedrich Nietzsche and the Revolt Against Reason • Friedrich Nietzsche • began to question adequacy of rational thinking to address human situation • remained unpopular in life • wanted to tear away mask of respectable life and question how humans made those masks • The Birth of Tragedy • urged non rational aspects of human nature as important as rational ones • Thus Spake Zarathustra • criticized democracy/Christianity • Uebermensch • announced death of God, coming of Overman who would embody heroism/greatness • Nietzsche critical of racism, anti-Semitism • Return to Homeric age • thought Christian values/bourgeois morality prevented humankind from achieving life on heroic level • Beyond Good and Evil and The Genealogy of Morals • sought to discover social and psychological sources of judgment of right/wrong • thought that we need “a critique of moral values” but values must 1st be valued • morality a human convention without no independent existence • Discovery allowed humans to create life-affirming values and new moral order that glorified pride not meekness • Appealed to feelings for questioning of rationalism • humans had to forge from their own will and determination the values that would exist in the world The Birth of Psychoanalysis • Development of Freud’s Early Theories • Sigmund Freud • Austrian Jew • Allowed patients to talk freely • Noticed neurotic symptoms resulted from childhood (sexual) incidents • rejected this view 1897 • Infantile Sexuality • thought sexual drives exist in infants • obliterated childhood innocence Freud’s Concern with Dreams: • Thought dreams must have rational explanation • concluded dreams let loose unconscious wishes and drives • unconscious drives contribute to conscious behavior •Related to infantile sexuality in The Interpretation of Dreams(1900) Freud’s Later Thought • Developed new model of mind as struggle between 3 entities: • id: amoral/irrational instincts for pleasure • superego: moral imperatives from society • ego: mediator, allows personality to cope w/demands • Freud reflected romanticism and Enlightenment • hostile to religion • wanted humane behavior • Thought survival required suppression of sexuality and aggression Divisions in the Psychoanalytic Movement • Freud’s disciples • Carl Jung: Swiss student and parted ways • Jung doubted primacy of sexual drives in personality • Put less faith in reason • Thought humans had collective memory • Modern Man in Search of a Soul • Jung moved toward mysticism/religion/romanticism • By 1920s, Psychoanalytic movement even more fragmented • influenced sociology anthropology religion literature Retreat from Rationalism in Politics • Liberals/socialists agreed rational analysis could discern problems/locate solutions • by 1900, views came under attack, racial theorists questioned them • Max Weber • German sociologist • Thought rationalism was major development of human history • Bureaucratization was basic feature of social life • noneconomic factors accounted for major developments • contrasted Marx Theorists of Collective Behavior • Social scientist: • Lebon explored crowds/mobs, • Sorel argued people led to goals by shared ideals • Durkheim/Wallas thought shared ideals bind humans together Racism Since 18th century biologists classified humans by skin color/civilization/ language Postulated existence of ancient race called Aryans that spoke ancestor language Debate over slavery developed racism Association with biological science gave it prestige Count Arthur de Gobineau • French reactionary • Thought white Aryans unwisely intermarried/diluted greatness in their blood • Racial thinkers applied Darwin’s survival of the fittest to races and nations Chamberlain • • • • • Englishman Drew together strands of racial thought Believed superior race could be developed Anti-Semitic, thought Jew was major enemy of racial regeneration; writings of Paul de Lagarde and Julius Langbehn blamed Jews Late-Century Nationalism From 1870s onward nationalism became movement w/mass support/parties nation replaced religion for secular people used racial theory to support harsh treatment of colonial peoples thought whites were best Anti-Semitism & the Birth of Zionism • Religious anti-Semitism old as Middle Ages • during last 3rd of century • As finance capitalism changed economics • Europeans pressured to hate Jews • Anti-Semitic Politics • racial thought • Jews could never assimilate, • Jews responded w/Zionist movement to form separate Jewish state • Herzl’s Response • • Theodor Herzl called for separate Jewish state directed call to poor Jews in the ghettos Women and Modern Thought • Ideas that shook Europe produced mixed results for women • Antifeminism in Late-Century Thought • Influence of biology sustained stereotyped views of women • emphasized mothering role • Culture showed them susceptible to overwhelming and destructive instincts • Attack on religion actually reinforced stereotypes, • Darwin a sexist • Freud thought them incomplete • Early sociologists took conservative view of marriage/family/child rearing/divorce New Directions in Feminism • Revival of feminism • some groups wanted suffrage, • some activists raised other questions • by 1900s, they had defined the key issues Sexual Morality and the Family: • Middle-class women challenged double standard of sexual morality (prostitution) and male-dominated family • 1864-86, English prostitutes subject to Contagious Diseases Acts • police could examine prostitute/confine to locked hospital w/o legal recourse • purpose to protect men • Laws angered middle-class women • Laws assumed women were inferior to men • Denied women freedom of their own body • the Ladies’ National Association for the Repeal of the Contagious Diseases Acts (led by Josephine Butler) achieved suspension in 1883 and repealed in 1886 • other nations adopted English model of regulation and opposition (General Austrian Women’s Association) • Feminist groups began to demand equality in marriage • Germany • Mother’s Protection League contended mother’s required help of the state • Sweden • Ellen Key said govt., rather than husbands, should support mothers