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15-1
Richard T. Schaefer
SOCIOLOGY:
A Brief Introduction
Seventh Edition
© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
15
chapter
Population, Communities,
and Health
CHAPTER OUTLINE
•Demography: The Study of Population
•World Population Patterns
•Fertility Patterns in the United States
•How Have Communities Changed?
•Urbanization
continued
© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
15
chapter
Population, Communities,
and Health
CHAPTER OUTLINE
continued
•Types of Communities
•Sociological Perspectives on Health and Illness
•Social Epidemiology and Health
•Social Policy and Health: The AIDS Crisis
© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
15-4
A Look Ahead
█
█
█
█
How is the world’s population
changing?
What effects will those changes have
on our communities?
Why have large communities grown at
the expense of small villages?
How do a population’s health and wellbeing vary from one community to
another?
© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
15-5
Demography:
The Study of Population
█
Fertility: level of reproduction in a society
Demography: scientific study of
population
█ Sociologists focus on the social
factors that influence population rates
and trends
█
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15-6
Malthus’s Thesis
and Marx’s Response
█
Malthus: world’s population growing more
rapidly than the available food supply
Marx: no special relationship between
world population and the supply of
resources
█ Neo-Malthusian View stresses birth
control and sensible use of resources
█
© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
15-7
Studying Population Today
█
█
Census: enumeration, or counting of a
population
Vital statistics: records of births,
deaths, marriages, and divorces
gathered through a registration system
maintained by government
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15-8
Elements of Demography
█
Birth rate: number of live births per 1,000
people in a population in a given year
Total fertility rate: average number of
children born alive to any woman,
assuming she conforms to current
fertility rates
█ Death rate: number of deaths per
1,000 people in a population in a given
year
█
© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
15-9
Elements of Demography
Infant mortality rate: number of deaths
of infants under one year of age per 1,000
live births in a given year
█ Life expectancy: median number of
years a person can be expected to live
under current mortality conditions
█ Growth rate: difference between birth
and deaths, plus the difference
between immigrants and emigrants
█
© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
15-10
Figure 15-1: Life Expectancy in
Selected Countries, 2005
Source: Haub 2005.
© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
15-11
Figure 15-2:
Demographic Transition
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Population Explosion
█
Apart from war, rapid population growth is
perhaps the dominant international social
problem of last 40 years
– Population rose from 1 billion around
1800 to 6.4 billion by 2005
– Population pyramid: special type of bar
chart that shows distribution of
population by gender and age
© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
15-13
Figure 15-3: Population Structure
of Afghanistan and the United
States, 2008 (1 of 2)
Source: Projections developed by the Census in Bureau of the Census 2005a.
© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
15-14
Figure 15-3: Population Structure
of Afghanistan and the United
States, 2008 (2 of 2)
Source: Projections developed by the Census in Bureau of the Census 2005a.
© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
15-15
Fertility Patterns
in the United States
█
Over the last 4 decades, the U.S. and
other industrial nations have passed
through two different patterns of
population growth
– The Baby Boom
– Stable Population Growth
© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
15-16
How Have
Communities Changed?
█
Preindustrial Cities remained
small due to:
– Reliance on animal power
– Modest levels of surplus
– Problems in transportation and
storage of food
– Hardships of migration to the city
– Dangers of city life
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15-17
Industrial and
Postindustrial Cities
█
Industrial City: More populous and
complex than predecessors
Postindustrial City: Global finance
and electronic flow of information
dominate the economy
█ Urbanism: relatively large and
permanent settlement leads to
distinctive patterns of behavior
█
© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
15-18
Table 15-2: Comparing
Types of Cities
Sources: Based on E. Phillips 1996:132-135; Sjoberg 1960:323-328.
© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
15-19
Urbanization
█
Urbanization has become central aspect
of life in the U.S.
During 19th and early 20th centuries,
rapid urbanization occurred in
European and North American cities
█ Megalopolis: metropolitan areas that
spread so far that they connect with
other urban centers
█
© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
15-20
Functionalist View:
Urban Ecology
█
█
Human ecology: interrelationships
between people and their spatial settings
and physical environments
Urban ecology: focuses on
relationships as they emerge in urban
areas
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15-21
Functionalist View:
Urban Ecology
█
█
Concentric-zone theory: center, or
nucleus, of a city is the most highly
valued land and each succeeding zone
surrounding the center contains other
types of land which are valued differently
Multiple-nuclei theory: all urban
growth does not radiate out from a
central district
© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
15-22
Conflict View:
New Urban Sociology
█
█
New urban sociology: considers
interplay of local, national, and worldwide
forces and their effects on local space
World systems analysis: certain
industrialized nations hold dominant
position at core of global economic
system
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15-23
Table 15-3 Major Perspectives
on Urbanization
Urban Ecology
New Urban Sociology
Theoretical perspective
Functionalist
Conflict
Primary focus
Relationship of urban areas Relationship of urban areas
to their spatial setting
to global, national, and
and physical environment
local forces
Key source of change
Technological innovations
such as new methods of
transportation
Economic competition and
and monopolization of
power
Initiator of actions
Individuals,
neighborhoods,
communities
Real estate developers,
banks and other financial
institutions, multinational
corporations
Allied disciplines
Geography, architecture
Political science,
economics
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15-24
Figure 15-4: Global
Urbanization 2015 (projected)
Source: National Geographic 2005:104-105
© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Figure 15-5: Comparison of
Ecological Theories
of Urban Growth
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Source: C. Harris and Ullmann 1945:13
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15-26
Central Cities: Urban Dwellers
█
Gans distinguishes 5 types found in
cities:
–
–
–
–
–
Cosmopolites
Unmarried and childless people
Ethnic villagers
The deprived
The trapped
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15-27
Issues Facing Cities
█
Crime
Pollution
█ Schools
█ Inadequate transportation
█
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15-28
Suburbs
█
█
Any community near a large city
Three social factors differentiate
suburbs from cities
– Less dense than cities
– Private space
– More exacting building codes
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15-29
Suburbs
█
Suburban Expansion
– Suburbanization most dramatic population
trend in U.S. during 20th century
█
Suburban Diversity
– The suburbs contain a significant number
of low-income people from all
backgrounds
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15-30
Rural Communities
█
21% of the U.S. population live in rural
areas
Overdevelopment, gang warfare, and
gang trafficking emerging as problems
in rural U.S.
█ Economic stagnation and resulting
depopulation stark in northern Rockies
and western Great Plains
█
© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
15-31
Sociological Perspectives
on Health and Illness
█
█
Health: “state of complete physical,
mental, and social well-being, and not
merely the absence of disease and
infirmity” (Leavell and Clark 1965:14)
Health is relative, and we can view it in
a social context
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15-32
Functionalist Approach
█
█
“Being sick” must be controlled so that
not too many people are released from
their societal responsibilities
Sick role: societal expectations about
attitudes and behavior of a person
viewed as being ill
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15-33
Conflict Approach
█
█
Critical of growing role of medicine as
major institution of social control
The Medicalization of Society
– Medicine greatly expanded its domain of
expertise in recent decades
– Problems viewed using a medical model
█
Inequalities in Health Care
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15-34
Interactionist Approach
█
█
Studies the roles played by health care
professionals and patients
Asserts patients may play an active role
in positive or negative health
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15-35
Labeling Approach
█
█
The designations healthy and ill
generally involve social definition
Disagreements continue in the medical
community over whether a variety of life
experiences are illnesses
© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
15-36
Figure 15-6: Infant Mortality
Rates in Selected Counties
Source: Data reported in Haub 2005.
© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Table 14-1 Characteristics of
the Three Major
Economic Systems
Interactionist
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Functionalist
Conflict
Labeling
Major emphasis
Control of the
number of people
who are considered
sick
Overmedicalization
Gross inequities
in health care
Doctor-patient
relationship
Interaction of
staff
Definition of
of illness
and health
Controlling
Physician as
gatekeeper
Medical
profession
Medical
profession
Medical
profession
Proponents
Talcott Parsons
Thomas Szasz
Irving Zona
Paul Starr
Don Maynard
Thomas
Szasz
© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
15-38
Social Epidemiology
and Health
█
█
Social epidemiology: study of
distribution of disease, impairment, and
general health status across a population
Incidence: number of new cases of a
specific disorder occurring within a given
population during a stated period of time,
usually a year
© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
15-39
Social Epidemiology
and Health
█
Prevalence: number of cases of a
specific disorder that exist at a given time
Morbidity rates: disease incidence figures
presented as rates or number of reports
per 100,000 people
█ Mortality rate: incidence of death in a
given population
█
© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
15-40
Social Class
█
Studies show people in lower classes
have higher rates of mortality and
disability
–
–
–
–
–
Crowded living conditions
Substandard housing
Poor diet
Stress
Unable to afford quality health care
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15-41
Race and Ethnicity
█
Health profiles of racial and ethnic groups
reflect social inequality in U.S.
– Poor economic and environmental conditions
manifested in high morbidity and mortality
rates
– African Americans, compared with Whites,
have higher death rates from heart disease,
pneumonia, diabetes, and cancer
© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
15-42
Gender
█
When compared with men, women
experience higher prevalence of many
illnesses but they tend to live longer
– Lower rate of cigarette smoking
– Lower alcohol consumption
– Lower rate of employment in dangerous
occupations
– Women more likely to seek treatment
• Vulnerable to medicalization of society
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15-43
Age
█
Most older people in U.S. have at least
one chronic illness
– Older people vulnerable to certain types of
mental health problems
– Older people use more health services than
younger people
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15-44
Figure 15-7: Percentage of People
without Health Insurance
Source: DeNavas-Walt et al. 2005:18, 20.
© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
15-45
The AIDS Crisis
█
The Issue
– AIDS caught major social institutions by
surprise when it was first noticed in the 1970s
– There is currently no way to eradicate the
disease
– Essential to protect people by reducing the
transmission of the fatal virus
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15-46
The AIDS Crisis
█
The Setting
– AIDS is predisposition to disease caused by
HIV
– First cases of AIDS in the U.S. reported in
1981
– AIDS is stabilizing with an estimated 38.6
million people infected
– Disease is not evenly distributed: developing
nations of sub-Saharan Africa face greatest
challenge
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15-47
The AIDS Crisis
█
Sociological Insights
– Dramatic crises like AIDS epidemic are likely
to bring about some transformations in a
society’s social structure
– “Person with AIDS” or “HIV positive” may be a
master status
– Conflict perspective believes policymakers
were slow to react because high-risk group
were comparatively powerless
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15-48
The AIDS Crisis
█
Policy Initiatives
– Not all nations can respond in the same
manner
• Cost of drugs can be prohibitive in
developing nations
– Preventative initiatives few and far between in
developing nations
• Some developing nations not capable of
distributing medicine even when it is free
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15-49
Figure 15-8: Availability of
Physicians by State
Source: Bureau of the Census 2005a:113.
© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
15-50
Figure 15-9: Adults and Children
Living with HIV/AIDS
Source: Report on the Global AIDS Epidemic; UNAIDS 2006.
© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.