Download Theory & Methods

Theory & Methods
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Although there are no hard and fast
rules about which methods are best,
some have become associated more
with a positivist approach
(experiments, questionnaires) and
some with social action approaches
(participant observation)
Theory & Methods
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In order to find out information about
society sociologists use a range of
research methods.
Theory & Methods
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Primary Methods
Refers to information collected by
the researcher
It did not exist before
Theory & Methods
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Secondary Methods
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Refers to data which already exists
Theory & Methods
Type Of
Data
Primary
Theoretical
Perspective
quantitative
Experiments
Positivist
qualitative
Observation
Interpretivist
Surveys:
Questionnaires
Positivist
qualitattive
Surveys:
Interviews
Interpretivist
quantitative
Official Statistics
Positivist
qualitative
Mass Media,
Diaries
Interpretivist
quantitative
Secondary
Method
Quantitative data
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Data in numerical form – statistics
Tables etc can be made of them
Helpful for looking at
correlations/relationships between
factors
e.g Durkheim and suicide rates in
different countries
Often seen as more reliable data
than qualitative
Qualitative Data
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Data in word form
Harder to analyse than stats
Often seen as more valid data than
quantiative
Validity
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i.e how true a picture does the
data give
how close to real life is it?
Reliability
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Data is reliable when different
researchers can repeat the research –
using the same methods and getting
the same results
The Research Process
1.
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Choose a topic
At A2 you will carry out a research
study of your own choosing. Which
topic you choose will depend on a
number of factors. Sociologists in
their research will go through the
same process
Values of researcher
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What they see as
important
e.g gender issues in
education
their beliefs, interests
etc
Value of society
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What society sees as
important
e.g. Feminists looking
at increasing female
crime etc
Funding
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Practical issues are
very important
How much money and
where the money
comes from often
dictate what you can
and can’t do
e.g. The Joseph Rowntree
Foundation funds a lot of
research
http://www.jrf.org.uk
Availability of data
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How easy is it to get
access to what you
want to find out?
e.g some areas of
crime
Theoretical position
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Marxists will be keen
to study areas of
class conflict
Post-Modernists may
look at the
fragmentation of
society etc
The Research Process
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2. Choosing Research Methods
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Some methods are more suitable
for particular types of research
Participant Observation may be
more useful than a questionnaire
when studying football
hooliganism
But if the group is large a
questionnaire may be more
appropriate
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The Research Process
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3. Theoretical Considerations
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Positivists have tended to prefer
methods which generate
quantitative data
This is because they believe in a
scientific study of society
Quantitative data is seen as more
objective/unbiased
e.g Durkheim and suicide
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The Research Process
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3. Theoretical Considerations
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Interpretivists are more interested in
in-depth studies.
These enable the researcher to see
the action through the eyes of the
participants
They prefer qualitative methods which
give a deeper insight into the
meanings behind human interaction
e.g. Atkinson and suicide
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The Research Process
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3. Theoretical Considerations
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However this does not mean that
positivists will only use
quantitative methods and vice
versa!
Ethical Issues
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Ethical issues are moral principles
(beliefs about what is seen as right and
wrong). These set down important
guidelines for research – stating what
you can and can’t do.
There are many grey areas in
sociological research and consequently
the British Sociological Association has
set down key principles (other countries
have done the same as have other
subject areas - e.g. Psychology)
Ethical Issues
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Informed Consent
Researchers
should give the
respondents full
info about the
research
The respondent
then knows what
they are agreeing
to
Ethical Issues
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Deception
This is where the
respondents are kept from
knowing the true purpose of
the research
Sometimes this is done so
that people will act naturally
e.g. covert observation
But it could be accused of
spying
Ethical Issues
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Confidentiality
Identity of
participants
should always be
kept secret
Unless there are
very good reasons
for not doing so
Ethical Issues
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Privacy
Although privacy should be
respected
Most research intrudes into
people’s lives
Although many give their
consent – some participants
find that the research has
been too intrusive
Laboratory Experiments
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Lab experiments are the
backbone of scientific
discovery
The psychologist
Milgram used an
experiment to discover
how cruel humans can
be to each other
Lab experiments are rare
in sociology
Laboratory Experiments
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Controlling variables
Labs help to isolate
which variables affect
something the most
E.g Plant growth can be
affected by light, water
and temp
In society it is almost
impossible to control
variables
Laboratory Experiments
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Quantifying Results
Experiments usually give
quantifiable data
They also allow
replication – others can
do the experiment and
get the same results
Laboratory Experiments
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Correlation and causation
Labs help to find which
variables are linked and
how.
Is water more important
than light for a plant’s
growth?
Laboratory Experiments
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Lab experiments and people
Sociologists are sceptical of
lab experiments involving
people
Variables can’t be controlled
People will not act naturally
Society could be said to be
the lab for sociologists
Field Experiments
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Lack of control
Field experiments are conducted in
normal everyday situations
e.g. in a classroom
Variables can’t be controlled and
results can be seen as inexact
Field Experiments
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The ‘Hawthorne Effect’
This means that the respondents
behave in a certain way because
they are being observed
Comes from 1930’s Chicago study
at the Hawthorne Electrical works
They found that respondents felt
special because they were being
watched.
Field Experiments
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Experimenter Bias
People may respond differently to a
male/female, old/young person etc
This is an unintended affect
Field Experiments
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Ethical Issues
This questions whether it is right or
wrong to experiment on individuals
It depends on the experiment but the
BSA and BPA say that subjects
should be told afterwards that they
have taken part in an experiment
Surveys
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Surveys involve systematic collection
of data from a large number of
people. They usually use
questionnaires and/or interviews but
because of their scale are more likely
to use closed questions giving
quantitative data.
Surveys
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Response To Surveys
Response rates in surveys are typically low
– unless it is something like the National
Census where everybody is supposed to
take part.
Reasons offered for non response include:
 No time
 No interest
 Unable to contact (moved away)
 Suspicious of research
• Maintaining privacy
Sampling
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Sampling is extremely important in
sociological research. Given the practical
constraints of time and money, it is
impossible to approach everyone on a
given subject.
As a result, a smaller number is taken
from the population, the important thing
being that this small group is typical
(representative) of the larger group.
Sampling
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Sampling Unit
This is the individual sample taken
from a population
e.g. a doctor from a list of doctors in
Torbay
Sampling
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Sampling Frame
This is the list of the population to
be studied and from where the
sample is chosen
e.g. List of doctors in Torbay
Electoral registers, school registers,
telephone books etc are often used
as sample frames
Types Of Sample
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Random
Every member of the sampling frame
has an equal chance of being
selected
This avoids bias in selection
Types Of Sample
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Systematic
A variation on random where every
nth person is chosen from a list
e.g. every 10th person on a school
register
Like with random sampling this does
not guarantee representativeness
Types Of Sample
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Stratified
Where the population is divided
according to certain criteria e.g
gender, age etc.
Then proportionate samples are
taken from each grouping/strata
Types Of Sample
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Where a certain quantity of
individuals with certain
characteristics are required
e.g. 40 women under 30yrs
often used in market research
not particularly representative
Types Of Sample
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Snowball and Volunteer
Snowballing – researcher finds one
individual who then puts them in touch
with others
Often used when it is difficult to find a
sample with the right characteristics
e.g criminals
Volunteers – where individuals are invited
to take part in a study
e.g press advert
both the above are not very representative