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Sociological
Research
2
Sociology in Modules
2nd edition
Richard T. Schaefer
© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
What is the Scientific Method?
• Systematic, organized series of
steps that ensures maximum objectivity
and consistency in researching a problem
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Defining the problem
Reviewing the literature
Formulating the hypothesis
Selecting the research design
and collecting and analyzing data
– Developing the conclusion
Slide 2
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Scientific Method
• Defining the Problem
– Operational definition: Explanation of
an abstract concept that is specific enough
to allow researchers to assess the concept
• Reviewing the Literature
– Refines problem under study
Slide 3
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Scientific Method
• Formulating the Hypothesis
– Hypothesis: Speculative statement
about the relationship between two
or more factors known as variables
– Variable: Measurable trait or characteristic
subject to change under different conditions
• Independent variable: Variable
hypothesized to cause or influence another
• Dependent variable: Action depends
on influence of the independent variable
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Scientific Method
• Formulating the Hypothesis (continued)
– Causal logic: Involves relationships between a
condition or variable
and a particular consequence,
with one event leading to the other
– Correlation: Exists when change in one variable
coincides with change in another
• Correlation does not necessarily indicate causation
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Scientific Method
• Collecting and Analyzing Data
– Selecting the Sample
• Sample: Selection from a larger population
that is statistically typical of that population
• Random sample: When every
member of a population has
the same chance of being selected
• Snowball samples (Convenience Samples):
participants recruited through word of
mouth or by posting notices on the Internet
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Scientific Method
• Collecting and Analyzing Data
– Ensuring Validity and Reliability
• Validity: Degree to which the
measure reflects the
phenomenon being studied
• Reliability: Extent to
which the measure
provides consistent results
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Scientific Method
• Developing the Conclusion
– Supporting the Hypothesis
• Sociological studies do not always generate
data that support original hypothesis
– Controlling for other factors
• Control variable: factor held constant to
test the impact of the independent variable
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Figure 2-1: The Scientific Method
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Figure 2-2: Educational Level and
Household Income in the United States
Source: 2010 American Community Survey in Bureau of the Census 2011b:Table S1903; 2011a:Table 233.
Slide 10
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Figure 2-3: Causal Logic
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Figure 2-4: Impact of a College Education on Income
Source: Author’s analysis of DeNavas-Walt et al. 2011, Detailed Table PINC-03.
Slide 12
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Major Research Designs
• Research design: Detailed plan or
method for obtaining data scientifically
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Surveys
Observation
Experiments
Existing sources
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Surveys
• Study that provides sociologists with
information about how people act or think
– Interview: Researcher obtains information
through face-to-face or telephone questioning
– Questionnaire: Researcher uses printed or written
form to obtain information from respondent
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Surveys
• Quantitative research:
Collects and reports data
primarily in numerical form
• Qualitative research:
Relies on what is seen in field
and naturalistic settings;
often focuses on small
groups and communities
Slide 15
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Ethnography
• Collecting information through direct
participation and/or by closely
watching a group or community
– Ethnography: Efforts to describe
an entire social setting through
extended systematic observation
– Observation: Sociologist joins group to
get accurate sense of how it operates
Slide 16
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Experiments
• Experiment: Artificially created situation that
allows researcher to manipulate variables
– Experimental group:
Exposed to independent variable
– Control group: Not exposed
to independent variable
– Hawthorne Effect: Unintended influence
of observers or experiments on subjects
Slide 17
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Use of Existing Sources
• Secondary analysis: Research techniques
that make use of previously collected
and publicly accessible information and data
• Content analysis: Systematic
coding and objective recording
of data, guided by some rationale
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Table 6-1: Top Reasons Men and Women Had Sex
Source: Meston and Buss 2007:506.
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Research Today
2-1: Surveying Cell Phone Users
– Are you a cell phone–only user? If so, do you
generally accept calls from unknown numbers?
What problems might result from excluding cell
phone–only users from survey research?
– Which of the problems that arise during
telephone surveys might also arise during
Internet surveys? Might Internet surveys
involve some unique problems?
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Research Today
2-2: Gender Messages in Scouting
– Did you participate in scouting as a child?
If so, were you aware of the gender
messages you were receiving as part of the
scouting experience? How did you react?
– If you were a Scout leader yourself, what kind
of gender model would you attempt to be?
How would you become that kind of model?
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Ethics of Research
• Code of Ethics (ASA, 1997)
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Maintain objectivity and integrity in research
Respect subjects’ right to privacy and dignity
Protect subjects from personal harm
Preserve confidentiality
Seek informed consent
Acknowledge collaboration and assistance
Disclose sources of financial support
© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Ethics of Research
• Confidentiality
• Conflict of Interest
• Value Neutrality
– Investigators have ethical obligation to accept
research findings even when the data run counter
to their personal views, to theoretically based
explanations, or to widely accepted beliefs
Slide 23
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Taking Sociology to Work
Dave Eberbach,
Associate Director, Iowa
Institute for Community Alliances
– Do you know what you want to be
doing 10 years from now? If so, how
might a knowledge of statistics help
you in your future occupation?
– What kinds of statistics might you find in the
Human Service Planning Alliance’s data
warehouse? Where would they come from?
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Feminist Methodology
• Feminist perspective had greatest impact on
current generation of researchers
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See work and family as closely integrated
Recently, interested in self-injury
Studies tend to overlook women
Tend to involve and consult
subjects more than other researchers
© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
The Data Rich Future
• Massive increases in available
data allow sociologists to
undertake new research
– H1N1 flu strain
– crime patterns
– Increased data raises
concern about
individual privacy
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Research Today
2-3: Lying for Love Online
– Have you tried using an online dating
service? If so, were you truthful in describing
yourself online? Did the people you were
matched with turn out to be truthful?
– Why do you think online daters
engage in deception if they are hoping
eventually to meet someone face-to-face?
Slide 27
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Studying Human Sexuality
• Looking at the Issue
– Important to increase
scientific understanding
of human sexuality
• Privacy concerns
• Preconceptions
• Myths
• Beliefs
– Many people oppose
research on human sexuality
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Studying Human Sexuality
• Applying Sociology
– Little reliable national data on
patterns of sexual behavior in U.S.
– Government funding for studies
of sexual behavior is controversial
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Studying Human Sexuality
• Applying Sociology
– Federal government is major source
of funding for sociological research
– According to Weber’s ideal of value
neutrality, sociologists must remain free
to reveal information that is embarrassing
or supportive of government institutions
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Studying Human Sexuality
• Initiating Policy
– Sociologists developed the National Health
and Social Life Survey (NHSLS) to better
understand sexual practices of adults in U.S.
• Private funding
• NHSLS data allow interest groups
to address public policy issues
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Figure 8-1: Median Age of First Sex
Source: Durex 2007.
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Using Statistics
• Percentage: Shows portion of 100
• Mean: Average; sum of a series of
values divided by the number of values
• Mode: Single most common
value in a series of values
• Median: Midpoint that divides
a series of values into two groups
with equal numbers of values
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Reading Graphs
• Tables and figures allow social
scientists to display data and make
it easier to develop conclusions
– Cross-tabulation: Shows relationship
between two or more variables
– Graphs are often easier for public to understand
Slide 34
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Figure A-3: Changing Attitudes
Toward the Legalization of Marijuana
Source: Gallup 2011; see Newport 2012b in references.
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Figure A-4: People Who Favor
Legalization of Marijuana by Gender and Age
Source: Gallup 2011; see Newport 2012b in references.
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Writing a Research Report
• Finding Information
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Check textbooks
Use library catalog
Use computerized periodical indexes
Examine government documents
Use newspapers
Ask people, organizations, and agencies
Consult instructor
© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Writing a Research Report
• Writing the Report
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Focus on topic
Develop an outline
Work ahead of deadline
Read paper aloud
• Including Citations
and References
Slide 38
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