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Also: endosymbiosis
• Smaller prokaryotes
became incorporated
inside larger
prokaryotes.
These smaller
organisms
eventually
became mitochondria
and chloroplasts
inside eukaryotic cells.
The first cells were thought to
be simple, prokaryotic,
anaerobic, and heterotrophic.
(Bacteria cells)
27) Know your evolution terminology
• acquired inheritance - Lamarck’s evolution theory that
characteristics acquired in life (through use or disuse)
could be inherited.
• natural selection – adaptations or traits that lead to a
survival advantage that can make an organism better fit
to survive and produce offspring
Humans did not come from Monkeys! (We
do share a common ancestor.)
Indian Spectacled Monkey
• Homologous structures are features that originated in
a shared ancestor. They have different mature forms, but
develop from the same embryonic tissue. They are
inherited from a common ancestor.
• Example – animal forelimbs have adapted to different
environments but share the same basic pattern of
development.
• Vestigial structures - A seemingly
functionless structure in a modern
organism that was useful to an ancestral
form. They are usually small and
imperfectly developed, such as human
appendix, and pelvic bones in a snake
human appendix
vestigial
limbs in snakes
Some Biochemical
Evidence For Evolution
ALSO:
All organisms have DNA
(& RNA)
All organisms have ATP
 Similarities in cell respiration
enzymes
Descent with modification
implies that all living organisms are related to one
another. (Darwin reasoned that if we look back far enough,
we can find common ancestors to all living things. This is
known as the “principle of common descent.”
phylogenic tree – demonstrates
evolutionary relationships
Phylogeny
looks at
evolutionary
history in
classifying
organisms.
ALSO
PRIMATE CHARACTERISTICS
(prosimian primates – resemble early forms such as
lemurs, & tarsiers.)
“Primates have grasping
(prehensile)hands, &
acute vision
Unlike most mammals,
primates have color
vision. They have
front-facing eyes,
and overlapping fields
of vision – All air primates in forest living.
This gives primates depth perception, a
useful trait for an animal that moves by
swinging or jumping from branch to
branch. (An adaptation for life in the
trees.)
28) What is Binomial nomenclature
• Homo sapien
• Genus &
Species
Identifier
• Ursus arctos
ALSO: Why do scientists avoid using
common names when discussing organisms?
Common names can be confusing because
they may vary among languages and even
among regions in a single country.
Example: A cougar
• is a puma,
• is a mountain lion
• is a catamount
29) What is a Dichotomous Key
• A tool biologists can use to identify an organism
through a series of pared choices in a flow-chart
type method. Each pair of choices is a dichotomy
which usually describes various morphological
characteristics.
Too Simple?
30)
Six Kingdom System:
• Archaebacteria = unicellular prokaryotes
(descended from & very similar to first cells)
• Eubacteria = unicellular prokaryotes
(most bacteria that affect you)
• Protists =
protozoans & algae
• Fungi = fungi
• Plantae = plants
• Anamalia = animals
ALSO:
He devised a system
of grouping organisms
into hierarchical categories.
(Taxa)
He used structure and form
of organisms (morphology)
to help classify them.
ALSO:
Aristotle’s Classification Scheme
Plants were divided into three
groups: herbs with soft stems,
shrubs, and trees with
a single wood stem.
Animals were divided into
land dwellers, water dwellers
and air dwellers.
ALSO The Domain system proposes that a common ancestor
cell gave rise to three different cell types, each representing a
domain.
The three domains are the Archaea (archaebacteria), the Bacteria
(eubacteria), and the Eukarya (eukaryotes).
The Eukarya are then divided into 4 kingdoms: Protists, Fungi,
Anamalia, and Plantae. A description of the three domains follows:
31) The basic bacterial shapes: coccus,
bacillus, spirillum
Benefits of Bacteria
• Bioremediation, produce chemicals, antibiotics,
genetic engineering, fix nitrogen, recycle
nutrients (decomposers), produce vitamins,
digest food (cellulose for herbivores), produce
some foods, block out some pathogens, etc.
Eubacteria v. Archaebacteria
• Eubacteria are prokaryotes that have a
peptidoglycan in their cell walls and lack introns
in their DNA.
• Archaebacteria are prokaryotes that lack
peptidoglycan and have DNA segments similar
to those found in Eukaryotic cells (introns). They
have unusual lipids in their cell membranes.
They can be found in extreme environments--although their is evidence that they may occur in
less severe conditions.
Bacteria Diseases
• leprosy, tuberculosis, Lyme disease,
anthrax, tetanus, form of pneumonia, strep
throat, etc.
• Various forms of food poisoning
Also
Also antigens and antibodies
• Plasma cells produce antibodies.
Antibodies – Y shaped with two identical
arms. They attach to antigens (proteins
present on foreign cells etc.
32) viruses:
• What is chemical comprises the core of a virus?
• DNA or RNA
• Why are Viruses are said to be “obligate
intracellular parasites” ?
• They must reproduce in a host cell, which
eventually dies.
• What is a bacteriophage?
• A bacteriophage is a virus that infects
bacterial cells.
33) Distinguish between temperate and
virulent viruses.
The lytic cycle?
• A phage reproduces by the Lytic cycle in which it
attaches to a cell, injects its genes, and causes
the bacteria to become a virus factory, producing
new viruses.
(Virulent viruses reproduced in the Lytic cycle.)
The Lysogenic Cycle
• A virus that replicates through the
lysogenic cycle does not kill the host cell
immediately. It may stay in the host for
days, months or even years.
• The virus in this cycle is called a temperate
virus.
• The virus DNA is incorporated in the cell
DNA, at a site in the host cell genome, is
called a prophage. (provirus) The prophage
is replicated with the cell DNA and is passed
to daughter cells.
34) What is a retrovirus?
An RNA virus that uses reverse
transcriptase to reproduce. (Such as HIV
or Influenza)
35) Some Viral Disease:
• Colds, Influenza, AIDS, hepatitis, chicken
pox, measles, small pox, viral pneumonia,
rabies, polio, mumps, etc.
34)
37) Know some protist vocabulary
Endocytosis
The cell membrane folds in to form a small pouch
which pinches off within the cell to form a
vesicle.
Exocytosis (the reverse of endocytosis)
Two major types of endocytosis:
• pinocytosis – transport of solutes or fluids
• phagocytosis – movement of large particles or
whole cells. Unicellular organisms such as the
amoebae can ingest bacteria and other
protozoans, such as paramecia.
38) Contractile Vacuoles
Excess water removal: Due to the hypotonic
conditions of the surrounding environment, the
freshwater sarcodines must constantly rid
themselves of excess water that diffuses into the
cell.
Most freshwater sarcodines expel water with an
organelle called a contractile vacuole.
Excess water removal: Paramecia use contractile
vacuoles near the surface on the side opposite the oral
groove, one at the front end (anterior) and one at the
rear (posterior).
The canals fill with fluid, which discharge into the
central vacuole. The vacuole then ejects the fluid from
the cell.
39) Protozoan Diseases
• Malaria – Caused by the sporozoan
plasmodium (mosquito vector) Fever,
chills etc.
• Amoebic dysentery – Cause by the
sarcodine Entamoeba hystolytica –(water)
diarrhea, cramps
Giradiasis – Caused by a
trypanosome from the
phylum Zoomastigina
(a zooflagellate)
Water borne - diarrhea,
cramps
African Sleeping Sickness – also caused by a
trypanosome. (Tsetse fly -vector) Lethargy,
mental deterioration, coma etc.
40) ANIMAL terminology
Animals are multicellular, eukaryotic,
heterotrophs
Deuterostomes & Protostomes:
Deuterostomes – “second mouth” radial
cleavage of developing embryo, blastopore
(indentation of the blastula) becomes the anus,
second opening becomes the mouth.
(examples - echinoderms – such as star fish,
chordates and vertebrates as well)
• Protostomes – “first mouth” spiral cleavage of
developing embryo, blastopore becomes the
mouth, second opening becomes the anus
(occurs in most animal phyla).
monoecious and dioecious
• Monoecious – (“One House”)
hermaphroditic animals – both male and
female sex organs
• Dioecious – (“Two Houses”) separate
sexes
Primary Germ Layers:• result of gastrulation, three primary layers
• coelomate – true body cavity - An endodermic gut
– is surrounded & supported by a body cavity of
mesoderm. The mesoderm forms tissues or
attachments for organs located in the true body
cavity, such as the liver, lungs, etc.
Mollusks, arthropods,
chordates, & echinoderms
are coelomate animals.
• pseudocoelomate – “false body cavity”
mesoderm lines an endodermic gut suspended
in a fluid filled coelom cavity.
41) ANIMALS - INVERTEBRATES
• Porifera - pore animals – sponges, filter
feeders, sessile (stationary), hermaphroditic,
no true tissues, no symmetry, regenerates,
aquatic, gemmules (buds)
Water enters the incurrent
pore and leaves the
sponge through the
osculum. Collar cells draw
in water with their flagella.
• Cnidaria - stinging animals - jellyfish,
hydra ,coral, anemone, aquatic, sessil –
polyps, or medusa form (jellyfish),
• stinging cells in tentacles, gastrovascular cavity,
soft-bodies, radial symmetry, statocyst –
gravity detection, ocelli – eyespots, asexual and
sexual reproduction.
• Coral secrete calcium carbonate
exoskeleton.
• Hydra reproduce by budding.
• Coral share a symbiotic
relationship with algae.
Coral supply vital nutrients
to the algae.
• Worms
• Platyhelminthes - Flatworms – such as planaria (class
turbellaria) - free-living, acoelomate, bilateral symmetry,
Fluke (class trematoda) Fluke (class trematoda) –
parasitic, Tapeworm (class cestoda) segmented worm –
parastic.
• Nematoda round worms –pseudocoelomate – some
are intestinal parasite such as ascaris – digestive tract ,
hookworms –anemia of blood, filarial worms
elephantiasis, trichina worm – trichinosis
• Annelida - Earthworms, marine worms –
Earthworms have a true body cavity - coelom, all
organ systems, and a closed circulatory system.
They are hermaphroditic & can regenerate.
• Mollusks - soft bodied animals - body divided
into head-foot, and visceral mass, The mantle
layer secretes the shell. The visceral mass
houses organ systems. It has an open
circulatory system.
gastopods – slugs,snails
bivalves – clams, oysters,
mussels
cephalopods – squid, octopus,
chambered nautilus
• Arthropoda – jointed legs, exoskeleton molts
to grow larger, protein & chitin, waxy outer layer,
compound eyes, fused segments (tagmata),
cephalothorax & abdomen, open circulatory
system.
Crustaceans - crabs, lobsters, crayfish, shrimp, sowbugs, barnacles
Arachnids - spiders, mites, ticks, scorpions,
(spiders have book lungs, fangs called
chelicerae, 8 simple eyes, and 8 legs.
Insecta - compound eyes, 6 legs, complete
metamorphosis (egg, larva, pupa, adult)
and incomplete metamorphosis (egg, nymph,
after successive molts - adult). They
have specialized mouthparts. They
reproduce quickly and in large numbers.
Some maintain societies.
• Phylum Chordata
• Subphyla:
Urochordata,
Cephalochordata, &
Vertebrata
Characteristics shared by all chordates
at some stage in their lives:
1) notochord -stiff rod of specialized cells, encased by a firm
sheath along the length of the dorsal side. It becomes the
notochord
vertebrate backbone
in
a lancet
2) gill slits or pharyngeal pouches: seen
in embryos, develop into gills in fish &
other similar structures
3) dorsal hollow nerve cord :
( bundle
of nerves runs down the back)
above the notochord, the anterior end
develops into the brain, & the
notochord development
remaining part becomes the spinal
in a zebra fish embryo
cord
4) post anal tail - Extension of the body
past the anal opening - -propels aquatic forms
42) Vertebrate animal phyla
• Fish Classes- All ectotherms – coldblooded, 2 chambered heart, 1 loop of
closed circulation, eggs in water, external
fertilization.
Agnatha –
Jawless fish
(lampey and hagfish)
Chondrichthyes –
cartilage fish
(sharks, skates & rays)
Osteichthyes –
bony fish have scales,
swim bladder,
lateral line & mucus coat
• Amphibia - have metamorphosis, with an
aquatic larval stage (gills), lungs and skin
respiration, cold-blooded with webbed feet and
no scales or claws & smooth moist skin.
(Apoda = legless
Urodela =salamanders,
Anura = frogs and toads.)
• Reptilia – rough skin with scales, claws, welldeveloped lungs, 3 – 4 chambered hearts, coldblooded, Amniote “land” Egg (examples:
alligators, crocodiles, lizards, snakes)
• Aves – birds – warm-blooded (endotherms),
eggs, 4 chambered heart, light-hollow bones,
feathers, adaptations to flight.
• Mammalia - warm-blooded –(endotherms –
internal temperature regulation) 4 chambered
heart, produce milk for their young, bodies
covered with hair, specialized teeth.
43) organs and structures
• liver – produces bile, chemical detox., produce
glycogen, produce and breakdown cholesterol, etc.
• gall bladder – stores biles (to break up fat droplets)
• pancreas – produces digestive
enzymes, as well as insulin
• kidney – filters waste from
the blood (produces urine)
regulates glucose in the blood
• small intestine- most
digestion & absorption of
nutrients
44) Flower structures
pollen grains
•
•
•
•
anther – produces pollen
ovary – produces egg cells
stigma – sticky to trap pollen
stamen – male portion of
flower supports the anther.
ALSO: Organization of the plant kingdom
Seedless
vascular plants
vascular plants seed plants
Vascular Plants
• As plants moved from water to land, they had to
adapt to retain water. Some early plants lived
close to the ground.
• Plants developed a water-proof waxy cuticle
layer. Eventually a vascular system developed
to transport water and food throughout the plant.
Non vascular plant
• no true roots, stems or
leaves) They do not have a
complex vascular system for
moving food or water.
Mosses are bryophytes
• They lie close to the ground
or close to the bark of trees
where they can rapidly
absorb water.
• Non
vascular
plants are
the Bryophytes.
Plant structures
vascular tissues of the plant:
Xylem carries water – made up of tracheids
and vessel elements.
Phloem carries the products of photosynthesis,
sugars, - made up of sieve tube elements and
companion cells.
Leaf internal structures
• cuticle layer – waxy layer -prevents water loss
• mesophyll – ground tissue of chlorophyll-rich
• parenchyma cells.
• It consists of the palisade mesophyll and the
spongy mesophyll. Spongy mesophyll has air
spaces for water diffusion, and gas exchange.
stoma – opening to allow gas exchange guard
cells – control opening and closing of the
stomata