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Business Leadership and Organizational Behavior Communication Craig W. Fontaine, Ph.D. What is Communication? Communication • The transference and the understanding of meaning. • Language is a sign and symbol system. It involves a set of rules regarding the linking of symbols to referents and their meanings and the linking of symbols to each other. The Importance of Communication Communication helps organizations Accomplish individual and organizational goals Implement and respond to organizational change Coordinate activities Engage in virtually all organizational relevant behaviors The Importance of Communication • Today’s complex business environment depends on effective communication • Managers spend 80% of their day communicating • 48 minutes of every hour is spent: • • • • In meetings On the telephone Communicating online Talking informally • In short, communication permeates every management function Elements of the Communication Process The sender Encoding The message The channel Decoding The receiver Noise Feedback A Perceptual Model of Communication Encoding Sender Transmitted on medium Message Receiver decodes Receiver creates meaning Noise Source decodes Transmitted on medium Message Feedback Encoding Barriers to Effective Communication Filtering A sender’s manipulation of information so that it will be seen more favorably by the receiver. Selective Perception People selectively interpret what they see on the basis of their interests, background, experience, and attitudes. Information Overload A condition in which information inflow exceeds an individual’s processing capacity. Barriers to Effective Communication (cont’d) Emotions How a receiver feels at the time a message is received will influence how the message is interpreted. Language Words have different meanings to different people. Semantics The different understanding and interpretations of the words we use to communicate Communication Channels Channel – The medium selected by the sender through which the message travels to the receiver. Types of Channels – Formal Channels • Are established by the organization and transmit messages that are related to the professional activities of members. – Informal Channels • Used to transmit personal or social messages in the organization. These informal channels are spontaneous and emerge as a response to individual choices. Choice of Communication Channel Channel Richness The amount of information that can be transmitted during a communication episode. Characteristics of Rich Channels 1. Handle multiple cues simultaneously. 2. Facilitate rapid feedback. 3. Are very personal in context. Information Richness of Communication Channels Low channel richness High channel richness Routine Source: Based on R.H. Lengel and D.L. Daft, “The Selection of Communication Media as an Executive Skill,” Academy of Management Executive, August 1988, pp. 225–32; and R.L. Daft and R.H. Lengel, “Organizational Information Requirements, Media Richness, and Structural Design,” Managerial Science, May 1996, pp. 554–72. Reproduced from R.L. Daft and R.A. Noe, Organizational Behavior (Fort Worth, TX: Harcourt, 2001), p. 311. Nonroutine Informal Communication – The Grapevine • The Grapevine: represents the unofficial communication system of the informal organization. • Informal, not controlled by management. • Perceived by most employees as being more believable and reliable than formal communication • Faster than formal channels • About 80% accurate • Used when people are insecure and faced with organizational change • Used by employees to acquire the majority of their on-thejob information Grapevine Patterns E C K H Y G I X F B D J D E G J C D C F B B H I J A Gossip—one tells all B A Probability—each randomly tells others D K C A Single strand—each tells one other I Cluster—some tell selected others; most typical F A Direction of Organizational Communication Downward Lateral Upward Downward Communication • Managers provide five types of information through downward communication • • • • • Job instructions Job rationale Organizational procedures and practices Feedback about performance Indoctrination of goals Upward Communication • Upward Communication • Communicator is at lower level than receiver • Includes: brief meetings, memos, e-mails, suggestion boxes, group meetings, and appeal or grievance procedures Functions of Upward Communication – Is management’s primary source of feedback operational issues – Provides managers feedback about problems, organizational issues, day-to-day operations – Relieves employee tension by allowing lower-level organization members to share relevant information with superiors – Encourages employees’ participation and involvement, thereby enhancing organizational cohesiveness Lateral(Horizonal) Communication Overlooked in most organizational designs Necessary for coordination and integration of diverse organizational functions Often necessary for coordination Can provide social need satisfaction Facilitation often left to individual managers Communication Styles Communication Style Description Nonverbal Verbal Behavior Behavior Pattern Pattern Assertive Pushing hard without attacking; permits others to influence outcome: expressive and selfenhancing without intruding on others Good eye contact Comfortable, but firm posture Strong, steady, and audible voice Facial expressions matched to message Appropriately serious tone Selective interruptions to ensure understanding Direct and unambiguous language No attributions or evaluations of other’s behavior Use of “I” statements and cooperative “we” statements Communication Styles Communication Style Description Nonverbal Verbal Behavior Behavior Pattern Pattern Aggressive Taking advantage of others; expressive and self-enhancing at others’ expense Glaring eye contact Moving or leaning too close Threatening gestures Loud voice Frequent interruptions Swear words and abusive language Attributions and evaluations of others’ behavior Sexist or racist terms Explicit threats or put-downs Communication Styles Communication Style Description Nonverbal Verbal Behavior Behavior Pattern Pattern Nonassertive Encouraging others to take advantage of us; inhibited; self-denying Little eye contact Downward glances Slumped posture Constantly shifting weight Wringing hands Weak or whiny voice Qualifiers Fillers Negaters Communication Barriers Between Men and Women Men talk to: – Emphasize status, power, and independence. – Complain that women talk on and on. – Offer solutions. – To boast about their accomplishments. Women talk to: – Establish connection and intimacy. – Criticize men for not listening. – Speak of problems to promote closeness. – Express regret and restore balance to a conversation. Nonverbal Communication Messages expressed by other than linguistic means Messages transmitted by vocal means that do not involve language Sign language and written words are not considered nonverbal communication Experts estimate 65 to 90% of every conversation nonverbal Common Types of Nonverbal Communication Nonverbal Communication – – – – – Proxemics Haptics Facial Expressions Eye Contact Paralanguage Proxemics (or Personal Space) - History 1966: Edward Hall wrote “The Hidden Dimension” Introduced the concept of “proxemics” Definition: “the scientific study of human spatial behavior” Commonly cited observations of PROXEMICS Different cultures have different comfort levels of distance Men tend to take up more space than women Example: When you sit in the movies or on an airplane with someone of the opposite sex who usually gets the armrest? PROXEMICS - Personal Space Four zones of Proxemics – – – – Intimate Distance Personal Distance Social Distance Public Distance Personal Space in U.S. Public Distance Public distance – 12-25+ feet – Very formal – Evasive or defensive action can easily be taken – Used with strangers – Deference when approaching important public figures Social Distance Social distance – 4’ – 12’ – Closer distance (4-7’) used by people who work together/informal business – Longer distance (7-12’) requires raising the voice – more formal business and social interaction Personal Distance Personal Distance – 18” – 4’ – Sensory cues begin to fade here – More aware of person’s body rather than just the face – Touching is still possible – Common distance for casual conversation between friends Intimate Distance Intimate Distance – 0-18” – Head and face are all that is seen – Can get additional sensory signals – Usually not OK in public except for sports HAPTICS (Touch) The power of touch: A (1997) study found that strangers that were touched were more likely to return change left in a phone booth(Klienke) A (1992) study found that food servers who used touch received larger tips (Hornick) Library study (1976) found that students who were slightly touched by clerk while checking out library books evaluated the library much more favorably than those who were not touched. Facial expressions The face is capable of conveying 250,000 expressions (Birdwhistle, 1970) Smiling increases sociability, likeability, and attraction(LaFrance & Hecht, 1995) Food servers who smile more often earn increased tips (Heslin & Patterson, 1982) Studies conducted on students caught cheating found that students who smiled were treated with more leniency (LaFrance & Hecht, 1995) Eye contact Eye contact conveys a sense of sincerity Eye contact establishes a connection between persons Successful pan handlers establish eye contact (Beebe, 1974) People are more likely to comply when more eye contact is used Eye contact that is “too long” causes discomfort Paralanguage • The set of properties of speech used to communicate attitudes or other shades of meaning: • Vocal pitch • Tone/intonations • Tempo of speak Nonverbal Leakage of Deception—Lying BASE LINE: Behavior before judging MOVEMENT – Hand-to-face (cover mouth) – Nose rub – Lip biting – Foot tapping – Open gestures show comfort. DRESS – Close and open coat – Play with collar – Picking at lint on clothing PROXEMICS – Moving away “Politically Correct” Communication Certain words stereotype, intimidate, and insult individuals. In an increasingly diverse workforce, we must be sensitive to how words might offend others. – Removed: handicapped, blind, and elderly – Replaced with: physically challenged, visually impaired, and senior. Removing certain words from the vocabulary makes it harder to communicate accurately. – Removed: death, garbage, quotas, and women. – Replaced with terms: negative patient outcome, postconsumer waste materials, educational equity, and people of gender.