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Chinese Philosophy
Chinese Philosophy
• Philosophy has had a tremendous effect on
Chinese civilization, and East Asia as a whole.
• Many of the great philosophical schools were
formulated during the Spring and Autumn Period
and Warring States Period, and came to be known
as the Hundred Schools of Thought.
• The four most influential of these were
–
–
–
–
Confucianism,
Taoism,
Mohism, and
Legalism.
• Later on, during the Tang Dynasty, Buddhism from
India also became a prominent philosophical and
religious discipline.
• Eastern thought, unlike Western philosophy, did
not express a clear distinction between
philosophy and religion.
• Like Western philosophy, Chinese philosophy
covers a broad and complex range of thought,
possessing a multitude of schools that address
every branch and subject area of philosophy.
• In China, the Tao Te Ching (Dào dé jīng, in pinyin
romanisation) of Lao Tzu (Lǎo zǐ) [10] and the
Analects of Confucius (Kǒng fū zǐ; sometimes
called Master Kong) both appeared around 600
BC, about the time that the Greek pre-Socratics
were writing.
Confucius
551 – 479 BC
A man who only learns
the truth at the last
moment of his life has not
wasted his opportunities.
• 孔夫子, transliterated Kong Fuzi or K'ungfu-tzu, lit. "Master Kong," but most
frequently referred to simply as Kongzi 孔
子,
• The most famous thinker and social
philosopher of China, whose teachings
have deeply influenced East Asia for
centuries.
• Living in China between 722 BC and 481 (a
time when feudal states fought against
each other), he was convinced of his ability
to restore the world's order, but in the end
failed.
• After much traveling around China to promote his ideas
among rulers, he eventually became involved in
teaching disciples.
• His philosophy emphasized personal and governmental
morality, correctness of social relationships, and justice
and sincerity.
• These values gained prominence in China after being
chosen among other doctrines such as Legalism or
Taoism during the Han dynasty.
• Used since then as the imperial orthodoxy, Confucius'
thoughts have been developed into a vast and
complete philosophical system known in the west as
Confucianism.
• They were introduced to Europe by the Jesuit Matteo
Ricci, the first to Latinise the name as "Confucius".
• Of all the Chinese philosophies it is quite
safe to say Confucianism has had the
greatest impact throughout East Asia.
• His philosophy focused in the fields of
ethics and politics, emphasizing personal
and governmental morality, correctness
of social relationships, justice,
traditionalism, and sincerity.
• Confucianism, along with Legalism, is
responsible for creating the world’s first
meritocracy, which holds that one's
status should be determined by ability
instead of ancestry, wealth, or
friendships. It is arguable that
Confucianism is most responsible for
shaping the Chinese culture and state of
China.
孔夫子
Legalism
• In Chinese history, Legalism (Chinese: 法家; Pinyin:
Fǎjiā; Wade-Giles: Fa-chia; literally "School of law")
was one of the four main philosophic schools in
the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring
States Period (Near the end of the Zhou dynasty
from about the sixth century B.C. to about the
third century B.C.).
• It is actually rather a pragmatic political philosophy,
with maxims like "when the epoch changed,
legalism is the act of following all laws ," and its
essential principle is one of jurisprudence.
• "Legalism" here can bear the meaning of "political
philosophy that upholds the rule of law", and is
thus distinguished from the word's Western sense.
Mohism
• In China, a contemporary of Confucius, Mozi, "Master Mo",
is credited with founding the Mohist school, whose canons
dealt with issues relating to valid inference and the
conditions of correct conclusions.
• The Mohist school of Chinese philosophy contained an
approach to logic and argumentation that stresses
analogical reasoning over deductive reasoning, and is based
on the three fa, or methods of drawing distinctions between
kinds of things.
• One of the schools that grew out of Mohism, the Logicians,
are credited by some scholars for their early investigation of
formal logic.
• It disappeared during the Qin dynasty. Mozi's philosophy
was described in the book Mozi, compiled by his students
from lecture notes.
• In Mohism, morality is
defined not by tradition, but
rather by a constant moral
guide that parallels
utilitarianism.
• Tradition is inconsistent, and
human beings need an
extra-traditional guide to
identify which traditions are
acceptable.
Mo Tzu (Master Mo),
Latinized as Micius),
470 BCE–c.391 BCE
• The moral guide must then promote and
encourage social behaviors that maximize
general utility. He also believed in the 2nd law
and was in conflict with the ancients.
• Mohism promotes a philosophy of
universal love, i.e. an equal affection for all
individuals.
• This universal love is what makes man
good. This advocacy of universal love was a
target of attack by other schools, most
notably the Confucians who believed, for
example, that children should hold a
greater love for their parents than for
random strangers. He also had much
conflicts with Confucian ideas.
Lao Tzu: Father of Taoism
• Although ascetics and hermits such as Shen Tao
(who advocated that one 'abandon knowledge
and discard self') first wrote of the 'Tao' it is with
the sixth century B.C. philosopher Lao Tzu (or
'Old Sage' -- born Li Erh) that the philosophy of
Taoism really began.
• Some scholars believe he was a slightly older
contemporary of Confucius.
• Other scholars feel that the Tao Te Ching, is
really a compilation of paradoxical poems
written by several Taoists using the pen-name,
Lao Tzu. There is also a close association
between Lao Tzu and the legendary Yellow
Emperor, Huang-ti.
The five colours blind the eye.
The five tones deafen the ear.
The five flavours dull the taste.
Racing and hunting madden the mind.
Precious things lead one astray.Therefore the sage
is guided by what he feels and not by what he
sees.
He lets go of that and chooses this.
• In Lao Tzu's view things were said to create
"unnatural" action (wei) by shaping desires (yu).
• The process of learning the names (ming) used
in the doctrines helped one to make
distinctions between good and evil, beautiful
and ugly, high and low, and "being" (yu) and
"non- being" (wu), thereby shaping desires. To
abandon knowledge was to abandon names,
distinctions, tastes and desires. Thus
spontaneous behavior (wu-wei) resulted.
• Lao-tzu is venerated as a philosopher by
Confucianists and as a saint or god by some of
the common people and was worshiped as an
imperial ancestor during the T'ang dynasty
(618–907).
Taoism (also called of Daoism)
• Taoism is an indigenous religio-philosophical
tradition that has shaped Chinese life for more than
2,000 years.
• In the broadest sense, a Taoist attitude toward life
can be seen in the accepting and yielding, the joyful
and carefree sides of the Chinese character, an
attitude that offsets and complements the moral and
duty-conscious, austere and purposeful character
ascribed to Confucianism.
• Taoism is also characterized by a positive, active
attitude toward the occult and the metaphysical
(theories on the nature of reality), whereas the
agnostic, pragmatic Confucian tradition considers
these issues of only marginal importance,
although the reality of such issues is, by most
Confucians, not denied.
• More strictly defined, Taoism includes: the ideas
and attitudes peculiar to the Lao-tzu (or Tao-te
Ching; “Classic of the Way of Power”), the
Chuang-tzu, the Lieh-tzu, and related writings; the
Taoist religion, which is concerned with the ritual
worship of the Tao; and those who identify
themselves as Taoists.
• The Taoist philosophy can perhaps best be
summed up in a quote from Chuang Tzu:
• "To regard the fundamental as the
essence, to regard things as coarse, to
regard accumulation as deficiency, and to
dwell quietly alone with the spiritual and
the intelligent -- herein lie the techniques
of Tao of the ancients."
• Whatever the truth, Taoism and Confucianism have
to be seen side-by-side as two distinct responses to
the social, political and philosophical conditions of
life two and a half millennia ago in China. Whereas
Confucianism is greatly concerned with social
relations, conduct and human society, Taoism has a
much more individualistic and mystical character,
greatly influenced by nature.
• Contemplating the remarkable natural world Lao Tzu
felt that it was man and his activities which
constituted a blight on the otherwise perfect order
of things. Thus he counseled people to turn away
from the folly of human pursuits and to return to
one's natural wellspring.
The Chuang Tzu (Chung Chou) offers
philosophical meditations in a multitude
of forms, ranging from jokes and parables
to intricate philosophical arguments.
• Along with the Lao Tzu, it is considered one
of the foundational texts of philosophical
Taoism and explores how Tao (way)
represents the natural course of things.
• Confucians define it in a moral sense as it
operates within society; in the Chuang Tzu,
the way is often immoral.
• Pseudo-historical knowledge of the
sage Chuang-tzu (Zhuangzi) is even less
well defined than that of Lao-tzu.
• Most of Ssu-ma Ch'ien's brief portrait
of the man is transparently drawn from
anecdotes in the Chuang-tzu (Chung
Chou) itself and as such has no
necessary basis in fact.
• The Chuang-tzu, (Zhuangzi) however, is
valuable as a monument of Chinese
literature and because it contains
considerable documentary material,
describing numerous speculative trends
and spiritual practices of the Warring
States period (475–221 BC).
• Whereas the Tao-te Ching is addressed to the
sage-king, the Chuang-tzu is the earliest surviving
Chinese text to present a philosophy for private
life, a wisdom for the individual.
• Chuang-tzu is said to have preferred the doctrine
of Lao-tzu over all others; many of his writings
strike the reader as metaphorical illustrations of
the terse sayings of the “Old Master.”
• Whereas Lao-tzu in his book as well as in his life
(in legend) was concerned with Taoist rule,
Chuang-tzu, some generations later, rejected all
participation in society.
• He compared the servant of state to the well-fed
decorated ox being led to sacrifice in the temple
and himself to the untended piglet blissfully
frolicking in the mire.
Ssu-ma Ch'ien
145 BC-185 BC
Also spelled “Sima Qian”
• Astronomer,
• Calendar expert,
• The first great Chinese
historian,
– Noted for his authorship of the
Shih-chi (“Historical Records”)
also spelled “Shiji. ”
– Considered to be the most
important history of China down
to the end of the 2nd century.
• Sima Qian was born and grew up in Longmen, near
present-day Hancheng, Shaanxi. He was raised in a family
of historiographers. His father, Sima Tan (司馬談), served
as the Prefect of the Grand Scribes of Emperor Wu of Han
(Emperor "Han Wudi"). His main responsibilities were
managing the imperial library and calendar. Under the
influence of his father, at the age of ten, Sima Qian was
already well versed in old writings. He was the student of
the famous Confucians Kong Anguo (孔安國) and Dong
Zhongshu (董仲舒).
• At the age of twenty, with the support of his father, Sima
Qian started a journey throughout the country, collecting
useful first-hand historical records for his main work, Shiji.
The purpose of his journey was to verify the ancient
rumors and legends and to visit ancient monuments,
including the renowned graves of the ancient sage kings
Yu and Shun. Places he had visited include Shandong,
Yunnan, Hebei, Zhejiang, Jiangsu, Jiangxi and Hunan.
• After his travels, he was chosen to be the Palace
Attendant in the government whose duties were to
inspect different parts of the country with Emperor Han
Wudi. In 110 BC, at the age of thirty-five, Sima Qian was
sent westward on a military expedition against some
"barbarian" tribes. That year, his father fell ill and could
not attend the Imperial Feng Sacrifice. Suspecting his
time was running out, he summoned his son back to
complete the historical work he had begun.
• Sima Tan wanted to follow the Annals of Spring and
Autumn (春秋左氏傳) - the first chronicle in the history
of Chinese literature. Fuelled by his father's inspiration,
Sima Qian started to compile Shiji in 109 BC. In 105 BC,
Sima was among the scholars chosen to reform the
calendar. As a senior imperial official, Sima was also in
the position to offer counsel to the emperor on general
affairs of state.
•In 99 BC, Sima Qian got involved in the
Li Ling Affair: Li Ling (李陵) and Li
Guangli (李廣利), two military officers
who lead a campaign against the
Xiongnu (匈奴) in the north, were
defeated and taken captive. Emperor
Han Wudi attributed the defeat to Li
Ling, and all the officials in the
government condemned Li Ling for the
defeat. Sima was the only person to
defend Li Ling, who had never been his
friend but who he respected.
Emperor Han Wudi interpreted Sima’s defence of Li Ling as
an attack on his brother-in-law, who had also fought against
the Xiongnu without much success, and sentenced Sima to
death. At that time, execution could be commuted either by
money or castration.
• Since Sima did not have enough money to atone his
"crime", he chose the latter and was then thrown into
prison, where he endured three years. He described his
pain thus: "When you see the jailer you abjectly touch the
ground with your forehead. At the mere sight of his
underlings you are seized with terror... Such ignominy can
never be wiped away."
• In 96 BC, on his release from prison, Sima chose to live on
as a palace eunuch so to complete his histories, rather
than commit suicide as was expected of a gentlemanscholar. As Sima Qian's words explained:
• “The losses he [Li Ling] had formerly inflicted on the
enemy were such that his renown filled the Empire! After
his disgrace, I was ordered to give my opinion. I extolled
his merits, hoping the Emperor would take a wider view,
but ...in the end it was decided I was guilty of trying to
mislead the Emperor...I had not the funds to pay a fine in
lieu of my punishment, and my colleagues and associates
spoke not a word in my behalf. “
• “Had I chosen suicide, no one would have credited me
with dying for a principle. Rather, they would have
thought the severity of my offense allowed no other way
out. It was my obligation to my father to finish his
historical work which made me submit to the knife...If I
had done otherwise , how could I have ever had the face
to visit the graves of my parents?”
• ...There is no defilement so great as castration. One who
has undergone this punishment is nowhere counted as a
man. This is not just a modern attitude; it has always been
so. Even an ordinary fellow is offended when he has to do
business with a eunuch -- how much more so, then, a
gentleman! Would it not be an insult to the court and my
former colleagues if now I, a menial who sweeps floors, a
mutilated wretch, should raise my head and stretch my
eyebrows to argue right and wrong?
• “I am fit now for only guarding the palace women's
apartments. I can hope for justification only after my
death, when my histories become known to the
world."[1]
As an Historian
• Although the style and form of Chinese historical
writings varied through the ages, Shiji has defined
the quality and style from then onwards.
• Before Sima, histories were written as dynastic
history; his idea of a general history affected later
historiographers like Zhengqiao (鄭樵) in writing
Tongshi (通史) and Sima Guang (司馬光) in
writing Zizhi Tongjian (資治通鑑).
• The Chinese historical form was codified in the
second dynastic history by Ban Gu’s (班固)
History of Han (漢), but historians regard Sima’s
work as their model, which stands as the "official
format" of the history of China.
• In writing Shiji, Sima initiated a
new writing style by presenting
history in a series of
biographies. His work extends
over 130 chapters — not in
historical sequence, but was
divided into particular subjects,
including annals, chronicles,
treatises — on music,
ceremonies, calendars, religion,
economics, and extended
biographies. Sima's influence
on the writing style of histories
in other places is also evident
in, for example The History of
Korea
As a Literary Figure
• Sima's Shiji is respected as a model of biographical
literature with high literary value, and still stands as a
"textbook" for the study of classical Chinese worldwide.
• Sima’s writings were influential to Chinese writing, and
become a role model for various types of prose within the
neo-classical ("renaissance" 复古) movement of the TangSong (唐宋) period. The great use of characterization and
plotting also influenced fictional writing, including the
classical short stories of the middle and late medieval
period (Tang-Ming), as well as the vernacular novel of
the late imperial period.
• The influence is derived from the following key elements
of his writing:
• Skillful depiction: Sima portrayed many distinguished
subjects based on true historical information. He would
illustrated the response of the subject by placing him in a
sharp contrast or juxtaposition, and then letting his words
and deeds speak for him. The use of conversations in his
writing also makes the descriptions more vibrant and
realistic.
• Innovative approach: Sima's new approach in writing
involved using language which was informal, humorous and
full of variations. This was an innovative way of writing at that
time and thus it has always been esteemed as the highest
achievement of classical Chinese writing; even Lu Xun (魯迅)
regarded Shiji as "the first and last great work by historians,
poems of Qu Yuan without rhyme." (史家之絕唱，無韻之離
騷) in his Hanwenxueshi Gangyao (《漢文學史綱要》).
• Concise language: The style was simple, concise, fluent, and
easy-to-read. Sima made his own comments while recounting
the historical events. In writing the biographies in Shiji, he
avoided making general descriptions, and instead tried to
catch the essence of the events. He would portray the
subjects concretely, giving the readers vivid images with
Conclusion
• Throughout history, Chinese philosophy has been molded to
fit the prevailing school of thought in China. The Chinese
schools of philosophy, except during the Qin Dynasty, have
been relatively tolerant of one another.
• Instead of competing, they generally have cooperated and
shared ideas, which they would usually incorporate with their
own. For example, Neo-Confucianism was a revived version
of old Confucian principles that appeared around the Song
Dynasty, with Buddhist, Taoist, and Legalist features.
• philosophy has spread around the world in forms such as the
so-called New Confucianism and New Age ideas such as
Chinese traditional medicine.
• Many in the academic community of the West, however,
remain skeptical, and only a few assimilate Chinese
philosophy into their own research, whether scientific or
philosophical.
Matteo Ricci = a footnote
• Born in 1552 in Macerata, then part of the Papal
States, Ricci started learning theology and law in a
Roman Jesuits' school. In 1577,
• He filed an application to be a member of a
Missionary to India, and his journey began in March
1578 from Lisbon, Portugal, arrived in Goa, a
Portuguese Colony, in September 1578, and four
years later hwas dispatched to China.
• In 1582, he started learning the Chinese language
and customs in Macao, a Portuguese trading post in
Southern China, and became a rarely seen Western
scholar who mastered Chinese classical script. He
moved to Beijing in 1601, where he presented
himself at the Imperial court of Wanli.
• Not only could he write in ancient Chinese, he was
also renowned for his great understanding of
Chinese culture.
• He later discovered that Confucian thought was
dominant in the Ming dynasty in China. Ricci
became the first to translate the Confucian classics
into a western language, Latin; in fact "Confucius"
was Ricci's own Latinisation.
Matteo Ricci
(left) and Xu
Guangqi(徐光啟)
(right) in the
Chinese edition
of Euclid's
Elements (幾何
原本).