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America: Pathways to the Present Chapter 6 The Origins of American Politics (1789–1820) Copyright © 2003 by Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, New Jersey. All rights reserved. America: Pathways to the Present Chapter 6: The Origins of American Politics (1789–1820) Section 1: Liberty Versus Order in the 1790s Section 2: The Election of 1800 Section 3: The Jefferson Administration Section 4: Native American Resistance Section 5: The War of 1812 Copyright © 2003 by Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, New Jersey. All rights reserved. Liberty Versus Order in the 1790s • What was Alexander Hamilton’s program for dealing with national and state debt? • How did foreign policy issues divide Americans? • What issues led to the emergence of political parties? America’s 1st President • Washington took the office of office as the republic’s first President on April 30, 1789 having received the votes of all 69 electors. Politics in a Age of Passion • Washington’s inaugural address “expressed the revolutionary generation’s conviction that it had embarked on an experiment of enormous historical importance whose outcome was by no means certain.” • “American leaders believed that the success of the new government depended, above all, on maintaining political harmony. They were especially anxious to avoid the emergence of organized political parties, which had already appeared in several states…Nonetheless, national parties quickly arose…” Washington Establishes Precedents Creating the Cabinet (Executive Departments) Building a Federal Court System Addressing America’s Financial Problems Hamilton Has a Plan Hamilton’s Overriding Goal: Making America an Economic and Military Superpower Hamilton’s Plan: A summary • Hamilton’s plan had four main features. • 1. Pay the national debt at full face value. (The new federal government would issue near interest-bearing bonds and pay them off plus interest over many years.) • 2. Assume all state debts. The federal government would also assume all the debts owed by the states. Those who held the state debts would also be issued new federal bonds. • [The immediate goal of Hamilton was to establish the credit of the new American nation and ensure the loyalty of bondholders – who tended to be wealthy - to the new government.] • 3. Establish a protective tariff (tax on imports) and excise tax on whiskey to raise finds for the government to pay for its needs and pay on it’s debt. • 4. Establish a national bank which could hold tax deposits, issue paper money, and issue credit to entrepreneurs hoping to create new businesses. *** Hamilton’s Program: What were the goals of Alexander Hamilton’s plan for dealing with the national and state debts? What impact did his plan have on national politics? • “Alexander Hamilton’s immediate aims were to establish the nation’s financial stability, bring to the government’s support the country’s most powerful financial interests, and encourage economic development. His long-term goal was to make the USA a major commercial and economic power…The goal of national greatness, he believed, could never be realized with weak government.” Hamilton favored a strong central government which promoted industry and commerce. Political divisions arose from opponents, such as Jefferson and Madison who wanted a central government with very limited powers and who favored agricultural interests . (GML, pgs.269270) Alexander Hamilton • Alexander Hamilton viewed the United States as “a Hercules in the cradle.” • In order for this future superpower to grow it was essential for a strong central government, a prosperous economy dominated by industry and commerce, and a strong military. Hamilton • Alexander Hamilton viewed the United States as “a Hercules in the cradle.” • However, without “energetic government” America could never mature; in fact America could be snuffed out in its infancy by more powerful countries. He also saw the necessity of a large standing army and strong navy. Military power was necessary to back and promote economic power. Hamilton also believed that when the wealthy prosper the nation prospers. Thomas Jefferson Leads the opposition to Hamilton • Thomas Jefferson argued against Hamilton in Cabinet meetings. Jefferson feared “energetic government”, industrialization, and large standing armies. He also believed that Hamilton’s plan, especially creation of the national bank, would favor the North. Jefferson also did not believe the Constitution allowed creation of the bank. America’s future lay in a small government which promotes the individual liberties of its citizens by staying out of their way. Thomas Jefferson Leads the opposition to Hamilton • Jefferson did feel that government could promote greater liberty by making land and access to education available to all. (Although he never followed through on the latter.) Jefferson believed that the welfare of the common farmer, artisan, and laborer should be the objective of government. He believed that liberty was best promoted when ordinary people were left alone to succeed. His philosophy could be summed up this way: “The government that governs least, governs best.” • Differences between Hamilton and Jefferson led to the emergence of the first political parties in the USA. Opposition to Hamilton Against Hamilton: Jefferson, Madison and the South – but not Washington Hamilton Favors Creation of a National Bank Hamilton also saw the creation of a national bank as a vital part of his overall strategy to make the United States a major economic and commercial power. He believed that Congress had the authority to charter the bank under “implied powers.” • The First Bank of the USA Implied Powers • Hamilton argued that the Constitution gave the federal gov’t the power to make laws that were necessary for it to execute its responsibilities. (Art. I, Section 8, Clause 18)He argued that this created implied powers – powers not explicitly listed in the Constitution, but necessary for it to do its job. • Hamilton’s loose interpretation of the Constitution also allows for the growth of gov’t power. How powerful should the national government be? Hamilton favors “energetic government” • “For Hamilton, the first Treasury Secretary, the supreme threat to liberty arose from insufficient government power. To avert that, he advocated a vigorous central government marked by a strong President, an independent judiciary and a liberal reading of the Constitution.” “As the first Secretary of State, Jefferson believed that liberty was jeopardized by concentrated federal power, which he tried to restrict through a narrow construction of the Constitution. He favored states' rights, a central role for Congress and a comparatively weak judiciary.” Read more: http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,994569,00.html#ixzz 1Py9CYgsL Let’s Make a Deal New Taxes, New Protest Politics in an Age of Passion • “Originating in Congress, [parties] soon spread to the general populace. Instead of harmony, the 1790s became, in the words of one historian, an ‘age of passion,’ with each party questioning the loyalty of the other and lambasting its opponent in the most extreme terms. Political rhetoric became inflamed because the stakes seemed so high – nothing less than the legacy of the Revolution, the new nation’s future, and the survival of American freedom.” (GML, p.269) Alexander Hamilton’s Vision • “Political divisions first surfaced over the financial plan developed by Secretary of the Treasury Alexander Hamilton. Hamilton’s immediate aims were to establish the nation’s financial stability, bring to the government’s support the country’s most powerful financial interests, and encourage economic development. His long-term goal was to make the USA a major commercial and economic power…The goal of national greatness, he believed, could never be realized with weak government.” (GML, pgs.269-270) Competing Visions • Alexander Hamilton viewed the United States as “a Hercules in the cradle.” • However, without “energetic government” America could never mature; in fact America could be snuffed out in its infancy by more powerful countries. Hamilton also saw the necessity of a large standing army and strong navy. Military power was necessary to back and promote economic power. • Thomas Jefferson feared “energetic government” and large standing armies. America’s future lay in a small government which promotes the individual liberties of its citizens. Government could promote greater liberty by making land and access to education available to all. (Although he never followed through on the latter.) • • • • As Treasury Secretary, Alexander Hamilton was responsible for developing an economic program that would help repay the huge debts incurred during the Revolution. Hamilton called America a “Hercules in the cradle.” America had great potential, but only if our government was strong. In 1790, Congress approved Hamilton’s plan to allow the federal government to take responsibility for debts acquired by individual states. Southern states resisted this plan at first, since they did not want to help pay back the loans owed by northern states. However, Hamilton won southern support by promising to locate the nation’s new capital in the South. By assuming states’ debt, the federal government indirectly increased its strength. Since creditors now had an interest in the United States, not just individual states, they would help ensure that the new nation did not collapse. Hamilton’s Program: What was Alexander Hamilton’s plan for dealing with the national and state debts? Hamilton’s Strategy and Opponents • • • Hamilton’s Strategy To raise money to pay off debts, Congress created: (1) a tax on whiskey and (2) a tariff, or a tax on imported goods. Rather than pay off all debt at once, the United States paid interest, an extra sum of money that borrowers pay creditors in return for loans. Hamilton called for: (3) a national bank justifying its creation on a loose construction of the Constitution. That is, he believed that the government could take any action that the Constitution did not forbid as long as it was “necessary and proper.” Hamilton’s Opponents • Many Americans disliked Hamilton’s plan for the national government to take over state loans, viewing it as interference in state affairs. Many also disliked Hamilton’s new taxes. • Secretary of State Thomas Jefferson was particularly opposed to Hamilton’s plans. Jefferson favored a strict construction of the Constitution, believing that the government should not take any actions other than those specifically called for in the Constitution. The Birth of Political Parties • “By the mid 1790s, two increasingly coherent parties has appeared in Congress calling themselves Federalists and Republicans. Both parties laid claim to the language of liberty, and each accused its opponents of engaging in a conspiracy to destroy it.” (GML, p.274) • Rival newspapers also appeared in most cities. • “Inspired by the Jacobin clubs of Paris, supporters of the French Revolution and critics of the Washington administration in 1793 and1794 formed nearly fifty Democratic-Republican societies. The Republican press publicized their meetings, replete with toasts to French and American liberty.” • “Federalists saw the societies as another example of how liberty was getting out of hand…” (GML, p.277 The Democratic-Republican Societies • The partisanship of the 1790s expanded the public sphere and the democratic content of American freedom. It increased the number of citizens who attended political events and read newspapers. Ordinary men never before active in politics wrote pamphlets and organized political meetings. The Impact of the French Revolution • “Political divisions began over Hamilton’s financial program, but they deepened in response to events in Europe. When it began in 1789, nearly all Americans welcomed the French Revolution…That changed in 1793 when the Revolution took a more radical turn with the execution of King Louis XVI along with numerous aristocrats, and war broke out between France and Great Britain.” The Impact of the French Revolution “Events in France became a source of bitter conflict in America. Jefferson and his followers believed that despite its excesses the Revolution marked a historic victory for the idea of popular self-government, which must be defended at all costs…To Washington, Hamilton, and their supporters, however, the Revolution raised the specter of anarchy in America. “ (GML, p.273) •In 1789, Americans were divided by the French Revolution. •Federalists worried about the anarchy and public executions. Hamilton feared Democratic Republicans might want to do the same in America. •Jefferson decried the violence but publicly admired the French Revolution’s principles. The French Revolution and War in Europe Divides Americans • The French Revolution sharply divided Americans. Federalists saw the French Revolution as a democratic revolution gone wrong. Supporters of Jefferson, however, viewed it as an extension of the American Revolution. • The political split grew more intense in 1793, when the French ambassador to the United States, “Citizen” Edmond Genêt, tried to convince private Americans to fight with the French against the British. •Americans worried about the British and French war as most of America’s imports and tariff revenue came from British goods. •President Washington issued a proclamation of neutrality in 1793. •But Britain ignored him and began seizing American trading ships at sea. •Americans were outraged but powerless to respond. •Washington sent John Jay to London in 1794 to negotiate. • The resulting Jay’s Treaty was narrowly approved by the Senate. Federalists praised it, but Democratic Republicans attacked it. • Britain agreed to give up forts on American soil, but Americans had to repay preRevolutionary War debts still owed to Britain. • Restrictions remained on American shipping, which angered many Americans. The Whiskey Rebellion • In western Pennsylvania and other frontier areas, many people refused to pay the new tax on whiskey. In addition to being a popular beverage, whiskey was one of the only products made out of corn that farmers could transport to market without having it spoil. • The resulting Whiskey Rebellion followed in the tradition of Shays’ Rebellion and protests against the Stamp Act. Rebels closed courts and attacked tax collectors. • President Washington and Secretary Hamilton saw the Whiskey Rebellion as an opportunity to demonstrate the power of the United States government. An army sent to the Pittsburgh area soon dissolved the rebellion, demonstrating the United States’ commitment to enforcing its laws. Whiskey Rebellion: Don’t Mess with the Federal Gov’t! • President Washington and Secretary Hamilton saw the Whiskey Rebellion as an opportunity to demonstrate the power of the United States government. An army sent to the Pittsburgh area soon dissolved the rebellion, demonstrating the United States’ commitment to enforcing its laws. What issues led to the emergence of political parties? • Two political parties began to emerge in the new nation as divisions over Hamilton’s financial program and Washington’s foreign policy widened. A political party is a group of people who seek to win elections and hold public office in order to shape government policy and programs. • Disagreement over Hamilton’s financial plan split Congress into two sides. Newspaper editors also took sides. In 1793-1794 many supporters of the French Revolution and critics of the Washington administration formed nearly 50 DemocraticRepublican societies. These political clubs began endorsing candidates for state and national office. With these endorsements, these societies were becoming a political party. The same thing happened with supporters of the Federalist positions. What issues led to the emergence of political parties? • The Federalists formed one of these parties. The other, composed of critics of the Federalists, were called Republicans or (Democratic-Republicans) because they stood for a more democratic republic. To avoid confusion, historians call them the Jeffersonian Republicans. Both parties laid claim to the language of liberty, and each accused its opponent of trying to destroy it. To the Federalists, true liberty required order, which required strong government power. The DemocraticRepublicans believed government power threatened personal liberty. True liberty meant limited government. WashElection • President Washington chose not to run for a third term in 1796. With the nation politically divided, the election of 1796 was close. The Federalists won a narrow victory, making John Adams the second President. Jefferson, who finished second in the electoral vote race, became the new Vice President. • In his Farewell Address of 1796, Washington drew on his years of experience and offered advice for the young nation in the years ahead. He warned against competing political parties and advocated a foreign policy of neutrality. Which man (Hamilton or Jefferson)and which party (Fed. or Rep.)would have agreed with, or supported the following?: • “The government that governs least, governs best.” • The rich should rule. Average citizens cannot be trusted with political power. • The Constitution should be interpreted loosely. Congress requires additional powers to do what is “necessary and proper” for carrying out its expressed powers. These additional powers are called “implied powers.” Federalist or Jeffersonian Republican? • A strong national government poses a threat to individual liberty. • The nation needs a national bank. The Congress has the power to create one if it feels it is necessary and proper. • The nation requires a strong national government to protect our liberty from internal and external threats. • The nation’s economy should be based on agriculture (agrarianism), not manufacturing, commerce, and banking. “Those who labor in the earth (toil in the soil) are the chosen people of God.” Liberty Versus Order in the 1790s— Assessment Chapter 6, Section 1 Which of the following best describes Hamilton’s plan for dealing with debt? (A) All states’ debt would be forgiven. (B) Every state would pay back its own debt. (C) The United States would take responsibility for state debts. (D) Only southern states would have to repay their debts. What was the significance of the Whiskey Rebellion? (A) It led to support of Hamilton’s economic programs. (B) It provided an opportunity to demonstrate the power of the United States government. (C) It led to the emergence of two political parties. (D) It inspired the United States to join the war between France and Britain. Want to link to the Pathways Internet activity for this chapter? Click here! Liberty Versus Order in the 1790s— Assessment Which of the following best describes Hamilton’s plan for dealing with debt? (A) All states’ debt would be forgiven. (B) Every state would pay back its own debt. (C) The United States would take responsibility for state debts. (D) Only southern states would have to repay their debts. What was the significance of the Whiskey Rebellion? (A) It led to support of Hamilton’s economic programs. (B) It provided an opportunity to demonstrate the power of the United States government. (C) It led to the emergence of two political parties. (D) It inspired the United States to join the war between France and Britain. Want to link to the Pathways Internet activity for this chapter? Click here! Federalists v. Jeffersonian Republicans: What were the ideas of the first two political parties? Federalists • Favored a strong national government. They believed that in order for nations to thrive they required strong governments to provide domestic order and ward off foreign threats. Liberty was threatened by domestic disorder or foreign threats, both of which more likely with weak central authority. • Supported a loose interpretation of the Constitution (Article I, Section 8, Clause 18: The “necessary and proper clause” / the “elastic clause” Jeffersonian-Republicans • Believed in Jefferson’s view that “the government that governs least, governs best.” The greatest threat to individual liberty was a strong central government. Most government functions should remain with state and local governments, closer to the people. • Supported a strict interpretation of the Constitution (they feared a liberal reading of the Constitution could result in the national government gaining all kinds of illegitimate powers) The Election of 1800 • What actions did John Adams take as President? • Why was the election of 1800 a turning point? • What was significant about the transfer of power between parties in 1801? John Adams Takes Office • At the beginning of the Adams administration, the United States was drifting toward war with France. • The United States sent officials to France to negotiate. These officials were met by three secret agents: X, Y, and Z, who demanded a bribe and a loan to France. The XYZ Affair and the Quasi-War with France • The U.S. officials refused to pay the bribe and were met with public acclaim for their patriotism upon their return home. • This XYZ affair infuriated Americans, resulting in what amounted to an undeclared naval war with France. Crushing Dissent • The Federalists took advantage of the war crisis to push important new measures through Congress. These included the Alien and Sedition Acts of 1798. • Under the Alien Act, the President could imprison or deport citizens of other countries living in the United States. • Under the Sedition Act, persons who wrote, published, or said anything “false, scandalous, and malicious” against the American government could be fined or jailed. Alien and Sedition Acts The most controversial act of the Adams administration was the Alien and Sedition Acts, passed by a Federalistdominated Congress in 1798. The acts made it harder for immigrants to become naturalized citizens and allowed the deportation of immigrants deemed “dangerous” by federal authorities, moves meant to silence immigrant radicals who supported the Republicans and the French. They also authorized the prosecution of any assembly or publication critical of the government. This was meant to allow federal authorities to suppress Republican newspapers attacking the Adams administration and its policies. A “Reign of Witches” • Jefferson, referring to the Salem witch trials, believed these acts inaugurated a “reign of witches.” More than a dozen individuals were charged with sedition, many of whom were convicted, including Matthew Lyons, a Republican member of Congress. Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions • Instead of squelching the opposition, the Alien and Sedition Acts provoked more of it by making an issue out of free speech. Madison and Jefferson drafted resolutions to be passed by the Virginia and Kentucky legislatures. Both criticized the acts as violations of the First Amendment. • The original draft of Jefferson’s resolution asserted that states could unilaterally stop the enforcement of such laws within their borders (nullification)—but the Kentucky legislature deleted this passage before passing its resolution. • While many Americans were repelled by the idea that states could refuse to follow federal laws, more Americans believed the Alien and Sedition Acts violated protections for free speech enshrined in the Constitution. • Increasing Tensions • Jefferson, James Madison, and other Republicans believed that the Sedition Act violated the constitutional protection of freedom of speech. • These men responded to the Alien and Sedition Acts with the Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions. The resolutions called the Sedition act unconstitutional. Madison, who wrote the Virginia Resolution argued that the federal courts should nullify the law. Jefferson asserted in the Kentucky Resolution that states should be able to nullify federal laws which they felt were unconstitutional. • Tensions between Federalists and Jeffersonian Republicans continued to grow during the late 1790s. Increasing Tensions: Prosser’s Failed Slave Rebellion • Enslaved African Americans, although barred from participation in the political system, embraced the discussions of liberty going on around them. In 1800, a blacksmith named Gabriel Prosser and several other slaves in the area around Richmond, Virginia attempted a slave revolt. Prosser’s smallscale rebellion failed before it could get underway. Chapter 6, Section 2 Adams Loses Federalist Support • Adams angered many Federalists when he sought a peaceful solution to the undeclared naval war with France. Federalists such as Alexander Hamilton were in favor of a harsher policy toward France, including a declaration of war. • Adams entered the election of 1800 with several disadvantages. First, when the United States made peace with France, the Jeffersonian Republicans’ support for France became less of a rallying point for the Federalists. Also, the unpopular Alien and Sedition Acts became even less justified without the threat of imminent war. • Adams’s bid for re-election was further damaged when Aaron Burr, the Jeffersonian Republican nominee for Vice President, obtained and printed a damaging pamphlet against Adams written by Hamilton. The Campaign and Jefferson’s Victory The Campaign • By 1800, Thomas Jefferson emerged as the leader among those who preferred local to national government. • Jefferson ran against Adams in what became a nasty presidential campaign. • Jefferson’s campaign accused Adams of being a monarchist. Adams’s campaign claimed that Jefferson would lead the nation into chaos. Jefferson’s Victory • Jefferson won the popular vote but did not win a majority in the electoral college. He tied with his vice presidential running mate, Aaron Burr. • As specified in the Constitution, the House of Representatives voted to choose the President. Voting was deadlocked until the House elected Jefferson on its thirty-sixth ballot. • Jefferson’s victory was aided by the support of his usual nemesis Hamilton, who preferred Jefferson over Burr. Chapter 6, Section 2 A Peaceful Transfer of Power • Jefferson took the oath of office on March 4, 1801, amid the construction of the nation’s new capital. • The Federalists peacefully stepped down and allowed the Jeffersonian Republicans to take power. In doing so, they proved that the American system of government was receptive to peaceful transfers of power. The Election of 1800—Assessment Chapter 6, Section 2 What did the Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions provide? (A) They declared a naval war with France. (B) They prohibited false or malicious speech against the government. (C) They allowed the President to deport citizens of other countries. (D) They allowed those two states to nullify unconstitutional federal laws. Which of these was a disadvantage to John Adams in the election of 1800? (A) Tensions with France continued. (B) The Alien and Sedition Acts remained unpopular. (C) The District of Columbia was under construction. (D) A slave revolt led by Gabriel Prosser failed. Want to link to the Pathways Internet activity for this chapter? Click here! The Election of 1800—Assessment Chapter 6, Section 2 What did the Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions provide? (A) They declared a naval war with France. (B) They prohibited false or malicious speech against the government. (C) They allowed the President to deport citizens of other countries. (D) They allowed those two states to nullify unconstitutional federal laws. Which of these was a disadvantage to John Adams in the election of 1800? (A) Tensions with France continued. (B) The Alien and Sedition Acts remained unpopular. (C) The District of Columbia was under construction. (D) A slave revolt led by Gabriel Prosser failed. Want to link to the Pathways Internet activity for this chapter? Click here! The Jefferson Administration • How did Jefferson reduce the power of the national government? • What problem did Jefferson have with the federal courts? • How did Jefferson achieve his program in the West? • Why did Jefferson easily win reelection in 1804? • How did Jefferson respond to increasing tensions with Europe? Thomas Jefferson as President • Jefferson once wrote, “What is practicable must often control theory.” In light of this statement assess Jefferson’s actions as president. How much of his policies can be explained by his philosophy of government? How much by compromise with what was practicable? In your opinion, did any of Jefferson’s actions reflect hypocrisy or expediency, rather than pragmatism (doing what was practicable or possible)? A New Era Jefferson as President • Jefferson entered office with a straightforward agenda, or list of things that he wanted to accomplish. His goal was to reduce the influence of the national government in the lives of the American people. Remember, it was Jefferson who said: “The government that governs least, governs best”. Chapter 6, Section 3 Reducing Government • To limit the size and power of the federal government, Jefferson reduced taxes and severely cut the size of the federal bureaucracy,, the departments and workers that make up the federal government. • He also reduced the size of the army to just over 3,000 men. • Jefferson did not intend to destroy the government created by the Constitution, or even to undo all the acts of the Federalists. He let the Bank of the United States continue to function, knowing that its term would run out in 1811. John Marshall Defines the Role of the Supreme Court The Marshall Court Judicial Review The Judicial Branch Has the Final Say Jefferson and the Courts The Judiciary Acts The Constitution did not fully explain the organization or the role of the judicial branch. Congress filled in the missing details with the Judiciary Acts of 1789 and 1801. These acts created a national court system headed by the Supreme Court. The Supreme Court would settle differences between state and federal laws. Adams Appoints Judges Just before he left office, Adams appointed judges to federal courts who would be sympathetic to Federalist views. The appointment of these midnight judges angered Jefferson, who wanted to appoint judges from his own party. Marbury v. Madison The historic case of Marbury v. Madison (1803) arose when Jefferson tried to deny the appointments of some midnight judges. Chief Justice John Marshall ruled that it was against the Constitution for the Supreme Court to order the executive branch to let appointee William Marbury take his judicial office. Judicial Review In this ruling, the Court established the power of judicial review, in which courts decide whether or not laws are constitutional. It also allows federal courts to review state laws and state court decisions to make sure they are constitutional. In this way, the Court plays an important role in preserving the federal union. Mr. Jefferson Wants More Land for American Farmers, However…. Jefferson “Buys” Louisiana, But Violates His Own Principles Chapter 6, Section 3 Jefferson’s Program in the West The Land Act of 1800 Napoleon and the French The Louisiana Purchase The Lewis and Clark Expedition Under the Land Act of 1800, Americans were able to buy land in the western territories in small parcels and on credit. This encouraged the development of the frontier. When the French ruler Napoleon took over Spanish land in the West, the French began demanding large sums of money from American traders passing through New Orleans. Jefferson sent James Monroe and Robert Livingston to France to buy the city of New Orleans. Napoleon offered not just New Orleans, but the entire French claim of Louisiana instead. Monroe and Livingston quickly offered $15 million for the Louisiana Purchase. The purchase dramatically increased the size of the United States and its national debt. Congress agreed to fund an expedition to explore the Louisiana Purchase. The two-year-long Lewis and Clark expedition was successful in filling in many of the details of these vast lands. The Louisiana Purchase • • Jefferson was even prepared to ally with Britain if Napoleon refused to sell New Orleans. • Jefferson saw the Louisiana Purchase as his greatest achievement, and yet his view was highly ironic given its origins and character. Acquired by France in 1800, the vast Louisiana territory, stretching from the Mississippi to the Rocky Mountains, was purchased by Jefferson for the very small sum of $15 million. But it was sold only because the Haitian Revolution, which Jefferson detested, had defeated an overtaxed French military and Napoleon needed funds for campaigns in Europe. Americans were happy to secure the port of New Orleans, thus ensuring a previously precarious right to freely trade on the Mississippi. The Louisiana Purchase • Though Jefferson doubled the nation’s size and ended France’s presence in North America, the Federalists opposed the purchase as wasteful. Jefferson believed Louisiana ensured the survival of the agrarian republic of small and independent, virtuous farmers. Jefferson, a strict constructionist, also acknowledged that the Constitution nowhere gave the president the right to take this kind of action without approval from Congress. • Was this expediency, hypocrisy, or pragmatism? • The Louisiana Purchase Lewis and Clark Explore Incorporating Louisiana • Soon after purchasing Louisiana, Jefferson dispatched two fellow Virginians, Meriwether Lewis and William Clark, to explore it. They were to conduct scientific and commercial surveys in order to find ways to exploit the region’s resources, develop trade with Indians, and find a commercial route to the Pacific Ocean that could foster trade with Asia. In two years Lewis and Clark traveled all the way to the Pacific (reaching it in the area of today’s Oregon) and back. Though they did not find a commercial route to Asia, their success reinforced the belief that America’s territory would one day extend to the Pacific Ocean. • Incorporating Louisiana • Incorporating Louisiana, especially the city of New Orleans, was not easy. It had multiple legal and cultural traditions begun there by the Spanish and French. Slaves in New Orleans under these regimes had some limited rights. But even though the treaty said the United States would recognize all previous rights and legal customs, the rights of slaves and blacks were severely circumscribed once the United States took over. Incorporating Louisiana The Louisiana Purchase showed that, despite being far removed from Europe, events across the Atlantic world deeply affected the United States. Because the United States depended on many goods, especially manufactured goods, from Europe, the wars there directly influenced Americans’ livelihoods. Jefferson hoped to avoid becoming entangled in Europe’s wars, but ultimately he could not ignore these struggles. Jefferson, who wanted a diminished central state, used the military to fight the nation’s first war, a war to protect commerce in the Mediterranean. The Election of 1804 • Although the Federalists were a strong force in national politics, they began to lose support. They opposed the widely popular Louisiana Purchase, and farmers in the new lands in the South and West tended to support Jeffersonian Republicans. • Jefferson’s Vice President, Aaron Burr, was infuriated when Alexander Hamilton ruined his bid for the Federalist nomination in the New York governor’s race. This was not the first time that Hamilton had prevented Burr from scoring a political victory, and Burr challenged him to a duel. After killing Hamilton in this duel, Burr found his political career ruined. • Jefferson’s popularity, combined with a weakened Federalist Party, led to his landslide victory in the 1804 election. The Barbary Wars • In North Africa, the Barbary states had long preyed on European and U.S. shipping, although they refrained from attacking ships if a nation paid a hefty tribute. When Jefferson refused demands that the United States increase its tribute, a war between the Barbary states and the United States started, lasting until 1804. The treaty ending the war ensured the freedom to ship freely in the Mediterranean and nearby Atlantic oceans. • Renewed War in Europe and an Embargo • When war between France and Britain resumed in 1803, each nation imposed a blockade to deny the other’s trade with the United States, which was officially neutral. The British also engaged in the impressment of American sailors, essentially kidnapping them for service in the Royal Navy. Jefferson, believing America’s economy required free trade, enacted in 1807 the Embargo Act, which prohibited all American vessels from sailing to foreign ports, to force an end to the blockades. Renewed War in Europe and an Embargo • The Embargo stopped almost all American exports, and devastated the nation’s ports, but did not persuade France or Great Britain to end their blockades. In 1809, Jefferson signed the NonIntercourse Act, which banned trade only with Britain and France, and promised a resumption of trade with either nation if it ended its ban on American shipping. Increasing Tensions With Europe The Chesapeake • When Jay’s Treaty, which ensured peace between the United States and Britain, expired in 1805, European nations were back at war with each other. • French warships attacked American ships trading with Britain. British ships interfered with American ships trading with France. • In 1807, a British ship, the Leopard, attacked the USS Chesapeake, inflicted 21 casualties, and searched the ship for deserters from the British navy. The Embargo of 1807 • Jefferson, like many Americans, was angered by this attack. In the Embargo Act of 1807, Jefferson sought to punish the British and French by imposing an embargo, or a restriction on trade, on almost all foreign countries. • Americans who made their living through trade hated the embargo. Many also despised the direct interference of the national government in the economy. The embargo ruined Jefferson’s second term. Jefferson and the Embargo • Americans who made their living through trade hated the embargo. Jefferson ordered the navy to pursue and capture smugglers who violated the embargo. • What is ironic about Jefferson’s support and enforcement of the embargo? • Many despised the direct interference of the national government in the economy. Jefferson’s use of the embargo was especially ironic given his long standing opposition to any increase in government authority. The embargo ruined Jefferson’s second term. Madison and the Pressure for War (Cause of the War of 1812) • In 1808, Jefferson’s successor James Madison easily won election as president. With the Embargo a failure and deeply unpopular, in 1810 Madison forged a new policy in which trade was resumed with both powers, but provided that if either France or Britain stopped interfering with American shipping, the United States could re-impose an embargo on the other nation. France ended its blockade, and the British increased their attacks on American ships and sailors. Madison and the Pressure for War (Cause of the War of 1812) • In 1812, Madison resumed the embargo against Britain. Young Congressmen from the West known as War Hawks, such as Henry Clay of Kentucky and John Calhoun of South Carolina, called for war, in part because it would be an opportunity to conquer Florida and Canada. Others wanted a war to defend the principles of free trade and end Europe’s power over America. • Causes of the War of 1812 • Deteriorating relations with Indians in the West also precipitated war. Under Jefferson, the government continued efforts to “civilize” the Indians, even while it made efforts to remove them from their lands to open space for white settlers. Indians in the western territories acquired through the Louisiana Purchase by now were greatly outnumbered by whites, and some tribes, particularly the Creek and Cherokee, began to adopt white ways, such as agriculture and slavery. Causes of the War of 1812 • Others, called “nativists,” wanted to end European influences and resist white settlement of their lands. In the dozen years before 1812, movements of prophecy and cultural revitalization swept western and southern tribes, calling on Indians to stop the white’s destructive practices, such as gambling and drinking. Causes of the War of 1812 • A more militant position was taken by two Shawnee brothers, Tecumseh and Tenskwatawa. They refused to sign treaties with whites and advocated resistance to the federal government, and Tenskwatawa, a prophet, argued that whites were the source of all evil and that Indians should completely separate from everything European. In 1810, Tecumseh organized attacks on frontier settlements. In 1811, William Henry Harrison destroyed the militants’ village at the Battle of Tippecanoe. The “Second War of Independence” • • When Madison asked Congress to declare war on Britain in 1812, the vote reflected a divided nation. Federalists and Republicans representing northern states, where mercantile and financial interests were concentrated, voted against the war. Southern and western representatives voted overwhelmingly for it. The War of 1812: “The Second War of Independence” • Deeply divided, the U.S. lacked a large navy or army, lacked a central bank (since the Bank of the United States’ charter expired in 1811), and northern merchants and bankers refused to loan money to the government. Britain, even though focused on the war in Europe, initially repelled American invasions in Canada and imposed an effective blockade on the nation’s shipping. Washington, DC Burns • In 1814, the British invaded and captured Washington, D.C., burned the White House, and forced the government to flee. The War of 1812 • The United States had a few victories, including the defense of Baltimore at Fort McHenry, an event that inspired the song that became the national anthem, the “Star-Spangled Banner.” • The United States decisively vanquished Indian forces in the West and South, killing Tecumseh and many other militants. Most notably, forces led by Andrew Jackson forced Indians to cede much of the southeastern lands that became Alabama and Mississippi, and then famously repulsed British forces at the Battle of New Orleans in January 1815. • This battle was fought before news reached America that American and British negotiators had signed the Treaty of Ghent which had ended the war the previous month. The treaty changed nothing, giving the United States no territory or rights regarding U.S. ships or impressment. • Washington, DC Burns • In 1814, the British invaded and captured Washington, D.C., burned the White House, and forced the government to flee. The Impact of the War of 1812 • At the time, some Americans called the War of 1812 the Second War of Independence. The war affirmed the ability of the republic to defend itself and wage war without sacrificing its republican institutions. It made Andrew Jackson a national hero. And it sealed the doom of Indians who occupied lands east of the Mississippi River, thus finally securing this vast area for whites, many of whom in the south would bring slaves and slavery with them. The war strengthened Americans’ nationalism and their sense of isolation and separation from Europe. • The End of the Federalist Party • The war sealed the demise of the Federalist Party, which had been briefly revitalized by widespread opposition to the war in the north. Madison only narrowly won re-election as president in 1812. But an ill-timed convention of New England Federalists at Hartford, Connecticut in December 1814, badly injured the party. Convention delegates criticized the domination of the presidency by Virginians, lamented the diminishing influence of the northeast as new southern and western states joined the union, and called for an end to the three-fifths clause. They demanded two-thirds votes in Congress for declaring war, admitting new states, and laws restricting trade. But Jackson’s electrifying victory at New Orleans made the Federalists seem unpatriotic. • The End of the Federalist Party Within a few years the Federalist Party disappeared. The urban and commercial interests the party represented were small in an expanding agrarian nation, and their elitism and distrust of democracy was increasingly out of touch with an increasingly democratic culture. But the Federalists had raised an issue that would not go away in the future—the domination of the national government by the slaveholding south—and the kind of commercial development they championed would soon inaugurate a social and economic transformation of the nation. The End of the Federalist Party The Federalists may have died, but over time their vision of a powerful central government and a strong executive would prevail. In fact, DemocraticRepublican Presidents and many in Congress embraced some of the very ideas that they had condemned when offered by the Federalists. James Madison signed one bill re-chartering the Bank of the United States in 1816 and another bill implementing a protective tariff. The End of the Federalist Party For example, Madison called for the creation of a second National Bank and a protective tariff. Others called for federal support for the building of internal improvements. Ultimately, a new party system would emerge between the Democratic-Republicans who supported a more traditional limited government view (They became Democrats) and those who wanted an expanded role for the federal government (They became Whigs). The Jefferson Administration— Assessment Which of the following helped Jefferson meet his goal of reducing the influence of the national government? (A) The creation of an embargo (B) Cuts in the size of the federal bureaucracy (C) A duel with Aaron Burr (D) Acquisition of the Louisiana Purchase What is judicial review? (A) The name of the Supreme Court’s ruling in Marbury v. Madison (B) The appointment of judges at the last minute (C) The power of courts to decide whether laws are constitutional (D) A detail about the judicial branch mentioned in the Constitution Want to link to the Pathways Internet activity for this chapter? Click here! The Jefferson Administration— Assessment Chapter 6, Section 3 Which of the following helped Jefferson meet his goal of reducing the influence of the national government? (A) The creation of an embargo (B) Cuts in the size of the federal bureaucracy (C) A duel with Aaron Burr (D) Acquisition of the Louisiana Purchase What is judicial review? (A) The name of the Supreme Court’s ruling in Marbury v. Madison (B) The appointment of judges at the last minute (C) The power of courts to decide whether laws are constitutional (D) A detail about the judicial branch mentioned in the Constitution Want to link to the Pathways Internet activity for this chapter? Click here! Native American Resistance Chapter 6, Section 4 • What led to war between the United States and Native Americans in the Old Northwest? • In what different ways did Native American leaders react to United States expansion? Chapter 6, Section 4 • • • • War in the Old Northwest In the early 1790s, the Miami, Delaware, Shawnee, and other Native American groups came together to fight American expansion. With the help of the British in Canada, and led by warriors such as Little Turtle and Blue Jacket, they won several victories over the United States. The tide turned when the British withdrew their support and a new national army, known as the Legion of the United States, was formed. At the 1794 Battle of Fallen Timbers in present-day northwestern Ohio, the Legion defeated the Native Americans. As a result, several groups of Native Americans were forced to accept the Treaty of Greenville in 1795. According to the Treaty of Greenville, these groups relinquished the southern two thirds of Ohio and accepted that the Ohio River would no longer be a permanent boundary between their land and that of the white settlers. Native American Reactions Chapter 6, Section 4 Different Strategies • In the early 1800s, several Native American leaders proposed different ways to deal with the United States. • These strategies included accepting white culture, blending Indian and white cultures, returning to Indian religious traditions, and taking military action. Acceptance and Blending • Some Native Americans, including Little Turtle, tried to live peacefully with white settlers. • Others, including a Seneca named Handsome Lake, wanted to blend Native American customs with those of the white Americans. Other Native American Strategies Chapter 6, Section 4 Returning to Indian Traditions • In Indiana, Tenskwatawa, known simply as “the Prophet,” called for a return to traditional Native American ways. • Tenskwatawa was opposed to assimilation, the process by which people of one culture merge into and become part of another culture. • From his home on a reservation, an area that the federal government had set aside for Native Americans, Handsome Lake urged Native Americans to focus more on their traditions than on war. Taking Military Action • Tenskwatawa’s older brother, Tecumseh, believed that Native Americans needed to overcome local differences and unite in order to resist United States expansion. • Tecumseh’s forces were defeated by those of the United States at the Battle of Tippecanoe in 1811. The battle shattered morale and eroded confidence in Tenskwatawa’s leadership. Native American Resistance— Assessment Chapter 6, Section 4 What occurred at the Battle of Fallen Timbers? (A) The British in Canada began aiding Native Americans. (B) The Legion of the United States defeated a group of Native Americans. (C) Native Americans lost confidence in Tenskwatawa’s leadership. (D) Several strategies for dealing with the United States arose. Which of the following leaders favored blending Native American and white American traditions? (A) Tenskwatawa (B) Tecumseh (C) Handsome Lake (D) Blue Jacket Want to link to the Pathways Internet activity for this chapter? Click here! Native American Resistance— Assessment Chapter 6, Section 4 What occurred at the Battle of Fallen Timbers? (A) The British in Canada began aiding Native Americans. (B) The Legion of the United States defeated a group of Native Americans. (C) Native Americans lost confidence in Tenskwatawa’s leadership. (D) Several strategies for dealing with the United States arose. Which of the following leaders favored blending Native American and white American traditions? (A) Tenskwatawa (B) Tecumseh (C) Handsome Lake (D) Blue Jacket Want to link to the Pathways Internet activity for this chapter? Click here! Chapter 6, Section 5 The War of 1812 • Why did war break out with Britain in 1812? • How did the war’s end affect the United States? • What events led to the economic panic of 1819? • What issues led to the Missouri Compromise? Chapter 6, Section 5 War Breaks Out • Many Americans, including members of Congress, blamed the British for ongoing frontier violence between Native Americans and white Americans. • Anger toward Britain increased due to the British practice of impressment, the act of forcing people into military service. British ships regularly stopped American ships at sea and removed men to serve in the British navy. • President James Madison called for war with Britain, which Congress approved. The war that followed became known as the War of 1812. Chapter 6, Section 5 War on Land and Sea The Land War The Naval War The Burning of Washington, D.C The United States had only a small army and navy, giving it a disadvantage against Britain. Although the British defeated American forces attempting to invade British-held Canada, the American forces won some modest victories. Despite the much larger size of the British navy, Americans at first won a number of battles at sea. Victories such as the one by the USS Constitution (“Old Ironsides”) raised American morale. However, the superior British navy soon blockaded the United States coast. In the summer of 1814, British troops entered Washington, D.C., and started fires that consumed the city. From Washington, the British moved on to Baltimore, where American forces turned them back. Lawyer Francis Scott Key witnessed an all-night British bombardment there and described it in “The Star-Spangled Banner.” The War Ends • • • New Englanders suffered tremendous losses in trade during the war. In December 1814, they called a meeting known as the Hartford Convention to consider leaving the nation. Instead, the convention called for constitutional amendments to increase New England’s political power. The War of 1812 officially ended on December 24, 1814, with the signing of the Treaty of Ghent, which restored all old boundaries between the United States and British territory in North America. The treaty did not, however, resolve many of the issues that had caused the war, such as the British practice of impressment. Before news of the treaty reached the United States, General Andrew Jackson won a spectacular American victory against the British at the Battle of New Orleans. The victory raised morale and allowed Americans to end an unhappy war on a positive note. Postwar Boom and Panic Growth and Prosperity • After the war, Americans began moving westward at an incredible rate. • Trade with Europe boomed, and banks lent an abundant amount of credit. • James Monroe and the Republican Party dominated American politics, as the Federalists faded out of existence. The Panic of 1819 • In 1819, America experienced its first depression, or severe economic downturn. • The depression, known as the Panic of 1819, began when London banks demanded that banks in the United States pay money owed to them. United States banks in turn demanded the money that they had loaned to the American public. • Many Americans who had borrowed too much money in previous years were financially ruined. The Missouri Compromise • • • • In 1819, Congress began debating the admission of the state of Missouri to the United States. The basic issue at stake was slavery. Several members of Congress from the North objected to Missouri’s admission as a slave state, fearing that this would upset the balance of free and slave states in the South’s favor. A compromise known as the Missouri Compromise, engineered by Henry Clay, resolved the issue. Under the Missouri Compromise, Missouri would enter the United States as a slave state, Maine would enter as a free state, and all new states created above 360 30' N latitude (the southern border of Missouri) would have to be free states. The economy soon improved, and politicians agreed to avoid the difficult issue of slavery. However, the questions raised by these issues would soon be impossible to ignore. The War of 1812—Assessment Chapter 6, Section 5 Which of the following was a cause of the War of 1812? (A) The balance of power between free and slave states (B) The British practice of impressment (C) Andrew Jackson's victory at the Battle of New Orleans (D) The decline of the Federalist Party What did the Treaty of Ghent provide? (A) Constitutional amendments to increase New England's political power (B) Restoration of former borders in North America (C) An end to impressment (D) An end to frontier violence Want to link to the Pathways Internet activity for this chapter? Click here! The War of 1812—Assessment Chapter 6, Section 5 Which of the following was a cause of the War of 1812? (A) The balance of power between free and slave states (B) The British practice of impressment (C) Andrew Jackson's victory at the Battle of New Orleans (D) The decline of the Federalist Party What did the Treaty of Ghent provide? (A) Constitutional amendments to increase New England's political power (B) Restoration of former borders in North America (C) An end to impressment (D) An end to frontier violence Want to link to the Pathways Internet activity for this chapter? Click here!