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CHAPTER 15: FOREIGN AND DEFENSE POLICY Facing the World: Foreign and Defense Policy • Foreign policy is a nation’s external goals and the techniques and strategies used to achieve these goals. In practice foreign policy cannot be totally separated from domestic policy because the techniques and strategies used in foreign policy will have significant impact on domestic goals and policies. Some of the techniques used in the development of foreign policy include: – – – diplomacy - the total process by which states carry on political relations economic aid - assistance to other nations in the form of grants, loans, or credits to purchase goods technical assistance - sending experts with technical skills in agriculture, engineering, or business to aid other nations Facing the World: Foreign and Defense Policy • A major goal of foreign policy is national security, which is the foreign and domestic policy designed to protect the independence and political and economic integrity of the United States. Securing the nation from other nations is a difficult and complex task. In addition to the conventional military forces needed to repel aggressive action by other nations, the United States must also have strategic policy to protect the country from potential hostile actions. Facing the World: Foreign and Defense Policy • Defense policy is a subset of national security policy that includes the directing of the scale and size of the American armed forces. Defense policy considers the types of armed forces we need, how many wars we need to be prepared to fight simultaneously, and the type of weaponry that will be required. Facing the World: Foreign and Defense Policy • Diplomacy is the total process by which states carry on political relations with each other. It is the process of settling conflicts by peaceful means. During the 1990’s, the United States has used diplomacy to help unstable areas of the world negotiate peace. For example, the United States encouraged the negotiation of the North Ireland Peace Resolution. Morality Versus Reality in Foreign Policy • The development of foreign policy begins with the view a country and its leaders have of the world and how it operates. For an extended period of time the United States has operated on the assumption of moral idealism. This view of the world sees all nations as willing to cooperate and agree on moral standards. Clearly not all foreign leaders have operated from the moral idealism standard. However, when the United States encountered leaders of foreign nations who did not fit this model, like Hitler in the 1940s, the U.S. did not alter from this position. Typically, foreign policies that are based on moral idealism are unsuccessful because they assume an American ideal of morality that may not be universal for every nation. Morality Versus Reality in Foreign Policy • A competing model of foreign policy is grounded in the philosophy of political realism. Political Realists see each nation acting to maximize its own interest. From this perspective, foreign policy will not be used to further idealistic goals for the world. Instead foreign policy will reflect the values that will produce the best results for the people within the nation. What difference does it make if the United States conducts foreign policy from the position of moral idealism, or from the position of political realism? How could the public influence which view of human nature the federal government should operate from when conducting foreign policy? Morality Versus Reality in Foreign Policy • American foreign policy in this century has been a mixture of both. For example, the second Gulf War in 2003 revealed a mixture of idealism and realism. While the primary motive for invading Iraq was realistic (in the interests of U.S. security), another goal of the war reflected idealism (the liberation of the Iraqi people from an oppressive regime). Challenges in World Politics • The issue of terrorism has proven to be an important foreign policy challenge for the United States, particularly in the era after September 11, 2001. In the aftermath of the attacks on the U.S., the current Bush administration launched a war on terrorism. One primary goal of that war was to oust the Taliban government from power in Afghanistan. The Taliban was supportive of Al Qaeda, Osama bin Laden’s organization deemed responsible for the September 11 attacks. The U.S., along with a coalition of allies and supporters succeeded in ousting the Taliban and supported the creation of a new regime that did not support terrorism. Terrorist violence also has fostered increased security measures as nations attempt to balance a desire to protect citizens from terrorists with the citizens’ rights to privacy. Challenges in World Politics • Nuclear proliferation is an important U.S. foreign policy concern caused in part by the fear that terrorists will gain control of nuclear weapons. As a result of the dissolution of the Soviet Union, independent states now possess the nuclear warheads formerly controlled by the Soviet Union. The issue of nuclear proliferation again proved important in 1998 when India and Pakistan each detonated nuclear test bombs. These tests came despite the protests of the international community. Challenges in World Politics • The People’s Republic of China will continue to be an important player in world affairs. During the Clinton administration, China was granted most-favored nation status on a year-to-year basis. China’s enormous population is tremendously attractive to western corporations, and its possession of nuclear weapons enhance China as an important nation in the twentyfirst century. In spite of tensions between China and the United States in 2001 when an American spy plane collided with a Chinese fighter plane in Chinese air space, China fully backed the United States’ war on terrorism, and even provided intelligence information to the United States. Challenges in World Politics • The interdependence of the world economy is demonstrated by stock markets all over the world responding to regional ups and downs. In particular, the Asian economic crisis caused international concern as stock markets responded to bad economic news from parts of Asia. Challenges in World Politics • Regional conflicts no longer are conflicts between countries backed by the two super powers. However, this has not meant the end of conflicts between nations, or within nations. – In Central America and the Caribbean the U.S. has been actively involved in limiting the amount of armed conflicts. In 1989 the U.S. sent military troops to replace the leader of the government of Panama. One of the most pressing long-term problems for the U.S. in this region has been Cuba. With the demise of the Soviet Union, the Cuban government has had little economic aid. But the impasse between the U.S. and Cuba became dramatically clear during the Elian Gonzalez case. Challenges in World Politics • The Middle East has long been an area of concern for the United States because we purchase oil from the region. Hostilities culminated in 1990 with the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait. This action led the U.S. to persuade the United Nations to respond with aggressive action against Iraq. The Gulf War ended with the reinstatement of the Kuwait government but did not remove Hussein from power. The United States advocates stability in this region because of its impact on world energy supplies and because the state of Israel has had direct and indirect protection from the U.S. since its creation in 1956. Challenges in World Politics • After the terrorist attacks on the United States on September 11, 2001, the United States made it clear that it consider Iraq and Saddam Hussein to be part of an “axis of evil” that threatened world peace. In 2002 and early 2003, President George W. Bush called for a “regime change” in Iraq, but Bush was unable to convince the United Nations that military force was necessary in Iraq. Nonetheless, in March 2003, a U.S.–led coalition of nations invaded Iraq and within a month had ended Hussein’s decades-old dictatorship. The efforts of the coalition forces then turned to the task of assisting Iraq in recovering from the war and establishing a new government regime. Challenges in World Politics • Regional conflicts mushroomed in Eastern Europe after the break up of the Soviet Union. In some countries the conflict was managed in a peaceful manner (Czechoslovakia became two independent nations) while in others the conflict is extremely violent (former Yugoslavia). In the late 1990’s the United States and European countries began a bombing campaign that attempted to force Serbian leaders from waging war against ethnic Albanians in Kosovo. The bombing did stop some of the violence against Albanians, but left the Serbian leadership politically strengthened. Challenges in World Politics • Various regions of Africa continue to challenge foreign policy. Civil war in Rwanda caused huge refugee problems in neighboring Uganda and Zaire. Despite the extent of the crisis, the U.S. did very little to help. In addition, unrest continues to be a problem in the Congo and in Sierra Leone. Many see the western world’s lack of response as evidence of a political realist perspective in foreign policy. In addition, famine and disease, particularly the spread of AIDS negatively impact the economic, social and political realms of many African nations and create instability in this part of the world. Who Makes Foreign Policy? • The constitutional powers of the president require him to be actively involved in the development of foreign policy. However, it is important to note the difference between the position of the United States in world events in 1787 when the Constitution was drafted, and the position of the United States in the beginning of the twenty-first century. In 1787, the United States was neither a powerful nation nor a major player in shaping world events. Today the United States is the only country that has both a highly developed military with international power and a world-based economy that affects all other nations. This unique position has forced the United States to be active in world events and as the leader of the executive branch the president must play an integral role in foreign policy. Included in the powers of the president are his position as commander-in- chief of the military and the power to make executive agreements. Who Makes Foreign Policy? • In addition to the constitutional powers, the president also has informal techniques with which he can develop foreign policy. These techniques include: – The access to information from within the executive branch. • The Department of Defense. • Central Intelligence Agency • State Department • All other agencies and departments that collect information about international affairs. Who Makes Foreign Policy? – As legislative leader, the president can influence the budgetary constraints in all areas of appropriations. This includes economic aid, military aid, and humanitarian aid. – The president can use his position to build public support for his specific programs. – As leader of the government the president can make decisions for the country in the world arena that set the moral tone for the foreign policy of the nation. Who Makes Foreign Policy? • While the president has considerable influence on the making of foreign policy there are many sources of foreign policy-making within the executive branch. The sources include: – The Department of State is responsible for the daily operation of foreign policy. Every country that the United States officially recognizes receives State Department officials who maintain an office (or offices) in the country. These officials gather information and advise the president on the development of social, political, and economic conditions within their countries and how events could affect the United States. Who Makes Foreign Policy? • The National Security Council was created to aid the president in integrating the volumes of information related to foreign policy. From the Nixon administration through the George H. W. Bush administration (1968-1992) the NSC was seen by many political analysts as a rival to the State Department in the development of foreign policy. During the Reagan administration the NSC conducted secret foreign policy that was hidden from Congress and, according to President Reagan, the president. Who Makes Foreign Policy? – The intelligence community consists of the forty-plus government agencies or bureaus that engage in intelligence activities, information, and policy development. These agencies gather information about the capabilities of foreign governments, and perform activities that further U.S. foreign policy goals. These agencies include the following: • Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) • National Security Agency (NSA) • Defense Intelligence Agency (DIA) • Offices within the Department of Defense • Bureau of Intelligence and Research in the Department of State • Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) • Army intelligence • Air Force intelligence • Department of the Treasury • Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) • Department of Energy Who Makes Foreign Policy? • The Department of Defense was created in 1947 in an effort to bring all military activity under the jurisdiction of a civilian Secretary of Defense; it replaced the Department of War, which had been in existence since 1789. But the reorganization and creation of the Department of Defense created a single entity responsible for military activity. This reorganization helped to refine the gathering of information important to the president in the area of foreign policy. Congress Balances the Presidency • How much power should the president have in the area of foreign policy? This is not an easy question to answer today, nor was it an easy question for the founding fathers. In 1789 when the Constitution became effective, the power of the president in the area of foreign policy was rather limited because the power of the United States was very limited. The president was commander-in-chief, but only Congress could declare war. The president was responsible for making treaties but with the advice and consent of the Senate. As time progressed the power of the United States grew both economically and militarily. This increased power meant an increased role for the institution of the president. By the beginning of the twentieth century the United States had become a world power and the power of the presidency had expanded dramatically. Did the founding fathers intend for one person to have this much power? After the end of the Vietnam conflict Congress took action that was intended to reduce the power of the president. The War Powers Act limited the president’s use of troops in military action without congressional approval. Domestic Sources of Foreign Policy • Currently, the amount of interaction between all nations socially, economically, and politically is expanding dramatically. Foreign policy is becoming difficult to separate from domestic policy. President George H. W. Bush, President Clinton and President George W. Bush all appear to be influenced by public opinion in the development of specific foreign policy (although it is difficult to measure), and it appears that the American public is becoming more attentive to foreign affairs, particularly after September 11, 2001. This was especially the case during the Gulf war of 2003, during which time there were massive anti-war demonstrations. But besides fears of terrorism, Americans are increasingly interdependent on the global economy. Americans are affected by volatility in other nations now more than ever. This is especially true of Americans who are employed by multinational corporations, by American corporations dependent upon foreign markets, and by suppliers to these corporations. And as an increased percentage of Americans hold stock portfolios, the volatility of the global economy has become an increasingly important source of domestic public opinion. If this trend continues it seems likely that the public will more strongly influence foreign policy. Domestic Sources of Foreign Policy • A major source of jobs in the United States has been tied to the manufacture of military equipment. When President Clinton proposed a significant cut in the budget for the military, there was significant resistance from the military-industrial complex. The militaryindustrial complex is the term that describes the mutually beneficial relationship between the armed forces and defense contractors. Many communities were very opposed to budget cuts that would mean the loss of jobs in their community, and would hurt secondary economies surrounding the bases as well. When base closings were announced, many political leaders opposed these closings because of the economic hardships this would place on the communities affected. The Major Foreign Policy Themes • The United States has not always had the same goals or objectives in foreign policy. Part of the reason for the different goals and objectives has been the differing levels of power of the United States in relation to the power of other countries. As the United States became more powerful it began to take a different role in world events and this led to different goals and objectives. The following themes of United States foreign policy have influenced the actions of the government and in many cases the actions of the rest of the world. The Major Foreign Policy Themes • Formative years (1776-1800). The Declaration of Independence was the first foreign policy statement of the United States. Foreign policy was on the whole nonexistent prior to the nineteenth century. It was characterized by the large number of things that the government (then under the Articles of Confederation) could not do, including that it could not control commerce, and had no right to make commercial treaties. The goal was to “steer clear of permanent alliances.” The Major Foreign Policy Themes • The period of the Monroe Doctrine (18231898) was different from the formative years. While the U.S. was not going to be actively involved in the affairs of countries in Europe, Asia, or Africa, the U.S. was concerned with the Western Hemisphere. The Monroe Doctrine placed the United States as the leading country in the Western Hemisphere. This doctrine attempted to limit European influence in North and South America while increasing the influence of the U.S. The Major Foreign Policy Themes • The Spanish-American War and World War I (1898-1919) brought about a dramatic change in the foreign policy of the United States. For the first time the U.S. was recognized as an important player in the game of international affairs. Not only was the U.S. concerned with the Western Hemisphere, it was now concerned with international events throughout the globe. During this era the United States actively sought to influence the foreign policies of all major nations. The first war of nations (known at the time as the Great War) marked the beginning of the end of this era of foreign policy. The Major Foreign Policy Themes • The Era of Internationalism (1942-present) began the day after the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor. After defeating Germany and Japan in World War II, the United States sought to eliminate the conditions that led to both world wars and formed the United Nations. The Major Foreign Policy Themes • The alliance formed by the United States and the Soviet Union during World War II was short-lived. Because of their contrasting economic and political systems the United States and the Soviet Union became major adversaries. This adversarial relationship would dominate foreign policy throughout the world for the next 46 years. The relations between the U.S. and the USSR followed the following themes from 1945 through 1991. The Major Foreign Policy Themes – The Cold War was an ideological, political, and economic impasse. The Soviet Union created an area of influence that became known as the Soviet bloc, while the United States entered into a military alliance with many European nations called the North Atlantic Treaty Organization, or NATO. Winston Churchill proclaimed the Soviets had placed “an iron curtain” between the countries of Eastern Europe and Western Europe. The Major Foreign Policy Themes – – Containment was a new U.S. foreign policy that addressed this new threat from the USSR. Called the Truman Doctrine, this policy was adopted in an attempt to limit the spread of Soviet influence in other countries. The policy of containment led the U.S. to a military involvement in the Korean conflict and the Vietnam conflict. Confrontation in the nuclear world became a real threat in the late 1950s when the U.S. and the USSR had nuclear bombs and the technological means to deliver them. The Major Foreign Policy Themes – A period of détente or a relaxing period between the superpowers began to develop during the late 1960s, as both sides realized that a nuclear war meant mutual assured-destruction (MAD). Although there were still significant problems between the super powers (the U.S. refused to attend the Olympics held in the USSR in 1980 and the USSR refused to attend the Olympics held in the U.S. in 1984), relations were rarely openly hostile. Significant strides were taken to limit the use of nuclear weapons. The Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty (SALT I) went into effect, and although SALT II was never ratified, another major treaty limiting strategic weapons (START - Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty) was signed. The Major Foreign Policy Themes – During the Reagan and George H. W. Bush years, the world order changed drastically. The dissolution of the Soviet Union culminated in 1989 with the fall of the Berlin Wall, the last bastion of the iron curtain. This event signaled a major alteration in the Soviet Union’s influence. Shortly thereafter, the Baltic republics separated from the Soviet Union. The USSR was dissolved in December 1991, leaving a commonwealth of 15 independent nations to grapple with the major social, economic, and political problems in the 1990s and today. The dismantling of the Soviet Union led to new world problems and opportunities for the United States.