Download Anatomy & Physiology 2013

Human
Anatomy &
Physiology
Dr. Michael Raucci
Types of Anatomical Study
Gross anatomy – the study of structures
visible to the naked eye.
Histology – the study of tissues (Gr. histos
– “tissue”) with the aid of a microscope
Cytology – the study of cellular structure
and function (Greek kytos – “container”).
Embryology – the study of the origin,
structure, and development of the embryo
(the initial 8 week stage of human
development).
Pathology – the study and diagnosis of
disease (Gr. pathos – “suffering”).
Anatomical Position & Direction
Anatomical Planes
Anatomical Location
Body Organization
• Tissue – a group of similar cells
working together
• Organ – 2 or more tissues
working together
• Organ System – …
• Homeostasis – the maintenance
of a stable internal environment
Tissue Types
1) Epithelial Tissue
– covers and protects underlying tissues
- Skin and lining of organs
2) Nervous Tissue
– Sends electrical signals
- Nerves and sensory organs
3) Muscle Tissue
– made of cells that can contract and
relax to produce movement
- muscles and hollow organs
4) Connective Tissue
– joins, supports, protects,
insulates, nourishes and cushions
organs. It keeps organs from falling
apart.
- fat, bone, ligaments
The Human Body
• Contains 100 trillion
cells (200 different
types)
• All cells require energy
• DNA
• Body Organization
Homeostasis
• The maintenance of a stable and
optimal internal environment for
cells, tissues, organs, organ
systems, and organisms.
• A stimulus leads to a response
which is controlled through
negative or positive feedback.
• Requires the measurement &
regulation of homeostatic variables
including temperature, pH,
pressure, volume, concentration,
etc.
Negative Feedback
• By far the more common method of
regulation
• Stimulus leads to a response which then
causes suppression of the response
Positive Feedback
Organ Systems
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Integumentary System –external covering of the body; skin, hair & nails.
Skeletal System –body’s internal framework; the bones.
Muscular System –body’s means of movement and manipulation.
Nervous System –body’s control center; the brain, spinal cord, and nerves.
Endocrine System –glands that secrete hormones (chemical messages) into the blood
Cardiovascular System –body’s major transport system; heart, blood vessels, and
blood.
Lymphatic/Immune System – returns fluid to the blood stream; detects and repels
pathogens; lymphatic vessels, spleen, lymph nodes, tonsils, thymus, and more.
Respiratory System – delivers O2 to the blood and removes CO2; nasal cavity,
pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, and lungs.
Digestive System – transports, breaks down, and absorbs food; eliminates indigestible
remains; oral cavity, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small and large intestines,
salivary glands, pancreas, liver, and gallbladder.
Excretory System – eliminates nitrogenous wastes from the blood; regulates blood
volume, pressure, pH, and electrolytes; kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder and urethra.
Male Reproductive System – produces sperm and testosterone; testes, penis, vas
deferens, prostate gland, seminal vesicles.
Female Reproductive System – produces oocytes, estrogens, and progesterone;
receives, retains, and expels the embryo/fetus/infant; ovaries, fallopian tubes, uterus,
and vagina.
Integumentary System
• Skin, hair, and nails
– Protects underlying tissues
Skin
 Water-proof – keeps
water in or out and
foreign particles out
 Has nerve endings for
senses
 Regulates body
temperature with sweat
glands
(evaporation causes
cooling). Sweat also
removes some wastes
 Synthesizes Vitamin D
Skin layers
• Epidermis –
epithelial tissue
– Mostly dead cells
filled with the protein
keratin
– outer portion of skin
• Dermis – mostly
connective tissue
-lies below the epidermis
with a lot of the protein
collagen
• Hypodermis – fat &
other connective tissues
Skin Color
• Genetically determined
• Melanin – skin pigment
– Absorbs harmful radiation reducing DNA
damage
Hair and Nails
• Hair - Can protect skin from UV
radiation
– Melanin gives it its color
– In most mammals it can assist in body
temperature regulation by standing the
hair up and creating a blanket effect
• Nails – protect toes and fingertips
– Grow from a nail bed
• Fingernails grow approximately 2 to
3 millimeters, or about 1/8 inch, per
month.
• Toenails grow slower than
fingernails, at a rate of about 1 mm
per month.
• Hair, on the other hand, grows at a
much faster rate: roughly ¼ to ½ inch
per month, or 6 inches per year.
• After bone marrow, hair is the fastest
growing tissue in the body.
• Hair and nails grow faster in the
summer months than at any other
time of the year.
Abnormalities
• Wounds – heal via clotting, immune system
and new regeneration or scar tissue
• Cancer – damaged genetic material results
in abnormal growth of cells and tissues.
[
Keratosis (mole)
Squamous cell
Carcinoma
Melanoma
Basal Cell
Carcinoma
keloid
Neurofibromatosis
Skin tag
Brief Atlas of Dermatologic
Lesions
quiz and atlas
Muscular System
– Move bones – by contracting and relaxing
– Maintain posture – continuously active
– Squeeze and pump – assist the circulatory system
3 types of muscles
• Smooth – digestive system – moves food and
waste through the system via peristalsis. Uses
predominantly involuntary muscles.
• found within the "walls” of hollow organs; such as
blood vessels, bladders, uteri. gastrointestinal
tracts
• Cardiac – found only in the heart – self excitatory
• Skeletal – attached to the bones for movement
How would you characterize this muscle? The nuclei are centrally
located, there are no striations, and the muscle fibers do not branch.
Another good clue that this is smooth muscle is that when smooth muscle
contracts, the nuclei take on a corkscrew appearance.
•
How would you characterize this muscle? The nuclei are
centrally located, striations are present, and there is
branching of the muscle fibers. Several intercalated discs are
indicated by the white arrow heads.
How would you characterize this muscle? The nuclei are
peripheral, striations are present, and there is no branching
of the muscle fibers. Even when you cannot visualize
striations, the peripherally placed nuclei allow you to
differentiate skeletal muscle from both cardiac and smooth
muscle.
Muscle Definitions
• Voluntary – under conscious
control
• Involuntary – work irregardless
of thought
• Tendons – strands of connective
tissue located at the ends of
muscle. Attach the muscle to the
bone
• Flexor – bend a part of the body
• Extensor – straighten a part of
the body
• Muscle tone – a baseline
contraction that a muscle
maintains even during relaxation
Exercise
• Resistance (weights, bands, gravity,
etc.) – increase the size and strength of a
muscle
– Isometric – contraction without movement
– Isotonic – contraction creates movement of
a unchanging weight (barbell)
– Isokinetic – contraction creates movement
of a changing weight (nautilus machine)
• Aerobic (running, swimming, cycling,
etc) – improves the stamina of a muscle
particularly the heart.
– Defined as a sustained raising of the heart
rate
Growth
• Muscles grow
in length in
response to a
stretch.
• Muscles grow
in bulk in
response to a
need.
Injury
• Muscle strain
• Ruptured tendon
•Overstretching or overuse
•Overuse can be a singular
event or a repetitive activity
•Inflammation
Treatment
• Ice or heat?
• Immobilization or mobilization?
R – rest
I – Ice
C – Compression
E - Elevation
What’s wrong
with these
Pictures?
Steroids
• Anabolic Steroids – powerful chemicals that
resemble the male hormone testosterone.
Damages: heart, liver, kidneys, testes in men,
labido, hirsuitism in women, emotional instability.
• It also happens to be cheating
Skeletal System
• Bones, cartilage and
ligaments
• The bones in your
skeleton are alive
The Knee
Joint
What’s in a bone?
• Compact bone
• Spongy bone – not really
“spongy” – actually
provides most of the
strength of the bone via
trabeculation
• Compact bone – the
hard, solid outer surface
• Marrow – inside the
bone – stores fat and
makes new red blood
cells
• Cartilage lines the surface of a joint and is the
flexible material found
in the ears and tip of the
Shoulder joint
nose
Ball-and-Socket Joint
ivot Joint
first vertebrae is
atlas. It supports
balances the head.
second vertebrae
he axis.
head turns from
e to side as the atlas
ots around the axis.
• Joint
• This is a ball and
socket joint.
• The shoulder is a balland-socket joint
• Ball-and-socket joints
allows movement in
many directions.
– Sliding-vertebra
The Hinge
– Ball and socket-shoulder, hip
jaw bone opens
– Hinge- elbow, knee, jaw • The
and closes. If you did
not have a jaw bone
you couldn’t open and
close your mouth.
• Ligaments – connect bones to bones
• Growth plates – cartilage surfaces which allow
bones to grow in length. These close by age 15 in
girls and 18 in boys
Levers and lifting
• How do levers work?
• How do you increase the effectiveness of a
lever
• What is the safest way to lift?
Cardiovascular system teaching
aides
• Why do we need blood? Why do we need oxygen?
• Discuss women’s increased need for iron d/t menses
• WBC demo – 2 volunteers – 1 is a pathogen and 1 is a macrophage. I
am the WBC and I bump into cells of my own and recognize them but
when I bump into a pathogen I make antibodies (Piece of blue tape)
which attaches to pathogen and all its clones. Macrophage (24 hour
buffet) only eats things that are marked with antibodies.
• Use same demo to explain why can’t get chicken pox twice. Also
explain how modifying a virus allows us to create a vaccine. And how
an antibiotic works.
• Platelets – discuss hemophilia
• Heart - have demo heart available. Squeezing it makes no noise.
Noise is created when the vavles slap shut. Like slapping hands
together.
• Fill balloon with water and put in hand to simulate heart pumping
blood
Cardiovascular
System
• AKA Circulatory
System
• Heart pumps
blood through all
the blood vessels
supplying
nutrients and
removing wastes
• Heart, arteries,
veins, capillaries
Blood
• An adult human body contains
approximately 5 liters of blood
• Plasma – the liquid part of the blood (water,
minerals, nutrients, sugars, proteins, etc.)
• Solids – RBCs, WBCs, Platelets
Red Blood Cells
• Red blood cells (RBCs) – transport oxygen and
carbon dioxide
– Hemoglobin – the protein in blood that carries the
oxygen
– Hemoglobin contains iron (FE++)
– RBCs are made in the bone marrow
– RBCs lose all their organelles including their nucleus
before entering the bloodstream thus they cannot divide
and they can live only about 4 months
White Blood Cells
• Fight pathogens (foreign invaders in the
body)
• WBCs release antibodies – mark pathogens
for elimination
• Macrophage – engulfs foreign objects via
endocytosis
• Made in bone marrow
Platelets
• Fragments of cells
• Live 5-10 days
• Form plugs when there is a cut
and release chemicals that react
with proteins in the blood to
form a net of clotting fibers
(Scab)
Heart
• Muscular organ
• Located in the center of your chest behind the
lungs
• Size of your fist
• Pumps blood through the body
• Human heart has 4 chambers (left and right atria
[upper level chambers] and left and right
ventricles [lower level chambers])
• Valves – close after the expulsion of blood to
prevent back flow
– Lub-dub is the valves closing
http://www.med.ucla.edu/wilkes/intr
o.html
Blood flow in the heart
• Deoxygenated blood is brought to the right atrium
via the Vena Cava.
• This is then pumped into the right ventricle
• From the right ventricle the deoxygenated blood is
pumped into the blood vessels of the lungs where
oxygen perfuses into the blood
• The now oxygenated blood reenters the heart
going into the left atrium.
• It is then pumped into the left ventricle.
• Finally it is pumped out of the left ventricle into
the body via the aorta
Circulation
Circulation
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
From the body into the Vena Cava
From the Vena Cava in the heart’s right atrium
Right ventricle
Pulmonary artery
To the lung
From the lung into the pulmonary vein
Into the left atrium
Left ventricle
Pumped into the aorta and out to the body
• http://www.mydr.com.au/default.asp?Article=31
78
http://library.med.utah.edu/kw/pharm/hyper_heart1.html
Blood Vessels
• 3 types
– Arteries – carry blood away from the heart. Arteries
have thick muscular walls
– Capillaries – the smallest blood vessels. Usually only
one cell thick. Allow nutrients, oxygen and other
substances to diffuse through
– Veins – the veins transport the blood from the
capillaries back to the heart. Veins have valves. The
contraction of skeletal muscles helps to move the blood
through the veins
What is Blood Pressure?
• Definition – the force exerted by blood on the
walls of a blood vessel.
• 120/80 systolic/diastolic
• Systolic is the pressure
when the ventricles contract
• Diastolic is the pressure when the ventricles relax.
• What’s the problem with high or low blood
pressure?
Hypertension is a dangerous condition that may lead to heart attack,
stroke or kidney failure
Exercise and Blood Flow
• Exercise means increased need for energy hence
increased need for oxygen thus the heart must beat
faster (and you must breathe faster)
• Also blood is shunted
away from internal organs
towards the large muscles.
How does exercise help the heart?
Blood Type
• Type A – has A antigens, and B antibodies
• Type B – has B antigens, A antibodies
• Type AB – has A and B antigens, have no
antibodies to A or B
• Type O – has no antigens, have both A and
B antibodies
Who is the universal donor?
Who is the universal recipient?
Cardiovascular Diseases
• Effect heart, blood vessels and/or the blood.
• Atherosclerosis - #1 cause of death in the USA
-blood vessels become narrower due to fatty (cholesterol) buildup
until they are blocked.
-If the blood vessels that supply oxygen to the heart mussel are
blocked the effected area of heart muscle will die (AKA Heart Attack)
• Hypertension (high blood pressure) – blood vessels become weak and
heart is overworked
• Stroke – when a blood vessel in the brain fails, bursts or becomes
clogged (dissection, aneurysm, and embolism)
• DVT- deep vein thrombosis
atherosclerosis
Thrombus with recanalization
Coronary Artery Disease
Total closure
90% closed
Lymphatic System
•
•
•
•
Returns leaked fluids to blood vessels.
Also involved in immunity
Involved in reducing swelling
Lymph (the fluid) is moved by
the squeezing of skeletal muscles.
• Question: Why must a paraplegic
(legs are paralyzed) have someone
move their legs for them occasionally?
• Question: Why might it be bad for a person
who has varicose veins to sit for a long period of time?
What is
the
Lymphatic
System?
The Lymphatic or "lymph" system is commonly known as "the garbage disposal
system" of the body. It is often referred to as the "second circulatory system" and
flows throughout the entire body. It is through the Lymphatic System that toxic
substances move out of the body through the bloodstream.
Why is it important for your health to maintain your Lymphatic System?
When your Lymphatic System is blocked or clogged, this creates a condition of
stagnation which promotes fatigue and ill health. Some of the common symptoms
include lumps, bumps, pain and swelling.
How does the Lymphatic System become clogged or blocked?
Unlike the blood circulatory system, the Lymphatic System has no pump to keep fluid
flowing. Some causes of a blocked lymph system are due in part to stress, lack of
exercise, improper diet and repressed communication.
What are lymph nodes?
All the small and medium-sized lymph vessels open into lymph nodes which are
situated in strategic positions throughout
the body.
The lymph drains through a number of nodes, usually 8 to 10, before returning to the
blood. These nodes vary considerably in size: some as small as a pin head and the
largest are about the size of an almond.
Lymph nodes are found throughout the body. in inflammation and malignant disease.
As a result, palpation (feeling) of the neck, armpits and the groin area is an important
part of clinical investigation. Lymph from the head and neck passes through deep and
superficial cervical nodes.
Lymph Organs
• Lymph Nodes – bean sized and shaped organs
which remove dead cells and pathogens (bacteria)
from the blood
• Thymus – Makes WBCs but becomes completely
or nearly completely inactive by teens.
• Spleen – filters blood and also releases WBCs.
Older more fragile RBCs are broken down and the
parts are recycled here.
• Tonsils – defend against infection entering from
the oral and nasal cavities.. Can become infected
themselves.
Respiratory System
• Absorb oxygen and release
carbon dioxide
• Breathing and respiration are
not the same thing.
Breathing is part of
respiration.
• Respiration is a 2 part process
– 1) breathing
– 2) cellular respiration – the
chemical reactions that release
energy from food
• Nose
• Pharynx – connects
nose to back of mouth
• Larynx – includes the
vocal cords
• Trachea – surrounded
by cartilage
• Bronchi – 2 main tubes
split into thousands of
bronchioles
• Lungs – gas and water
exchange
Nasal cavity
Oral cavity
tongue
pharynx
epiglottis
larynx
trachea
esophagus
•Air is brought in when the
diaphragm contracts, enlarging
the chest cavity and creating a
negative pressure which makes
air rush in.
• Air is expelled when
the diaphragm
relaxes causing the
chest cavity to shrink,
hence pushing air
out.
Lungs
Alveoli
• Alveoli – the tiny sacs at the end of
bronchiole branches. They are surrounded
by capillaries.
• At the alveoli carbon dioxide and water is
forced in to the sac and oxygen is is forced
out of the sac into he capillary.
• http://www.med.ucla.edu/wilkes/intro.html
http://www.smm.org/heart/lungs/breathing.htm
Respiratory Diseases
• Asthma – bronchioles constrict and release
mucous. Often triggered by an irritant.
• Pneumonia – the lungs fill with fluids (primarily
caused by an infection)
• Emphysema – The alveoli increase in size and
decrease in number
• Lung Cancer - #1 cause is smoking
• http://www.med.ucla.edu/wilkes/lungintro.htm
•
Digestive System
• Breaks down food into
absorbable nutrients
• Begins in the mouth and
ultimately involves
teeth, tongue, salivary
glands, esophagus,
stomach, pancreas,
liver, gallbladder, small
intestines and large
intestines
The mouth
• Teeth
• Salivary glands –
secrete saliva which
has enzymes to begin
digestion.
• Esophagus – a
muscular potential
tube. Moves food down
via peristalsis
(rhythmic contractions
which propel food in
one direction)
The stomach
• A muscular baglike organ
• Attached to the esophagus on
the superior end and to the
small intestines on the inferior
end
• Produces acids and enzymes
which break food into
nutrients
• Grinds and mixes food with
contractions
• After hours of grinding and
acid mixing a sludge called
chyme is released into the
small intestines
Liver, Gallbladder, and Pancreas
• Liver – release bile which is stored
in the gallbladder and which is then
released into the small intestines
(bile helps to digest fats)
– The liver also stores nutrients
– Cleanses the blood
– Makes most of the cholesterol in your
body (needed for cell membranes)
• Pancreas – produces digestive enzymes
- Also produces insulin for the absorption of
sugar from the blood into other tissues
The Small Intestines
• A small muscular tube
• Covered with villi – inside the
villi there are nutrient
absorbing cells. Villi greatly
increase the absorptive surface
area.
• This is where the majority of
absorption (into the
bloodstream) takes place.
• Movement of chyme occurs
through peristalsis
The Large Intestines
• Stores, compacts and
eliminates undigested
material – re-absorption
of water creates a solid
material (feces or stool).
• Rectum – the last
section of the large
intestines
• Anus – the opening to
the outside
Problems in the Digestive System
• Heartburn – backflow of chyme from the stomach
into the esophagus (ineffective sphincter – a
ringed muscle at the junction between the
esophagus and the stomach)
• Constipation – body does not get enough fiber,
water, exercise or peristalsis is stopped or slowed
and the contents of the rectum are very dry
• Diarrhea – too little water is removed from the
large intestine. Can cause dangerous dehydration.
• Colon Cancer –
• Gastric Ulcer – an open sore in the stomach
Ulcer
Diverticulosis
• http://www.nature.com/gimo/contents/pt1/fi
g_tab/gimo13_V1.html
• http://health.howstuffworks.com/adam200088.htm
• http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/colonosc
opy/MM00010
Excretory (Urinary) System
• Removes wastes from
the blood and regulates
body fluids and salts.
• Excretion – the process of removing wastes
and excess products from the body by
passing through a memebrane (skin, lungs,
urinary system)
Kidneys
• A paired organ
• Filter 2000L of blood
each day
• Functional part is the
nephron
• Nephrons – remove
urea, water and excess
salts from the kidney
• From the kidneys urine
travels down the ureters
to the centrally located
bladder and is
ultimately expelled
through the urethra
• Why do we sweat?
• Why do we get thirsty?
• What is a diuretic?
Kidney
Problems
• Infections
• Kidney Stones
• Kidney Disease
– dialysis
Nervous System
• Receives and sends
electrical messages
throughout the body
• Everything you hear, see,
feel, think, taste, smell
etc. is perceived in the
nervous system.
• How would you explain
what sound is to
someone who has been
totally deaf since birth or
what a color is to
someone who has been
totally blind since birth?
Definitions
• Neuron – the impulse
transmitting and conducting
cells of the body.
• Body
• Dendrite – receiving
structures (many of these)
• Axon – transmitting
structures
• Nerve – axons bundled
together with blood vessels
and connective tissue
NEURONS
The Peripheral Nervous System
• The peripheral nervous system is all the nerve
structures located outside of the spinal cord
• Sensory System– neurons gather information from
the environment through receptors (specialized
dendrites)
• Motor System – neurons send information from
the brain to other parts of the body which results
in muscular contractions.
– 1) Voluntary System
– 2) Autonomic (or involuntary) System
The Central Nervous System
• The Brain, brainstem, and the spinal cord
Brain
• Cerebrum – right
and left hemispheres
– Thinking, memory,
voluntary
movements,
personality, sight, • Cerebellum – inferior to the
posterior of the brain
hearing, etc.
– Responsible for balance,
coordination of muscular
movements, and proprioception
(awareness of respective position
of body parts)
Lateral view
Sagital View
Brainstem
•
•
•
•
Midbrain
Medulla
Pons
The brainstem is often referred to as just medulla
though this is not correct
• Controls important involuntary activities like
breathing, heart rate, blood pressure, etc.
Spinal Cord
• Contained within the vertebra
which when stacked upon each
other form a canal known as
the spinal canal.
• The connection between the
brain and the rest of the body
• Why does someone who
suffers a spinal injury in their
lower back only paralyzed in
their legs?
• Why would a spinal cord injury
at or above the middle of the
neck be incompatible with life?
What is a reflex?
The Senses
•
•
•
•
•
Sight
Hearing
Touch
Taste
Smell
Eyes
Ears
•
Nose and Tongue
•
Touch
Endocrine System
• Glands regulate
body functions
by sending out
chemical
messengers.
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Pituitary gland
Thyroid gland
Parathyroid gland
Thymus
Adrenal glands
Pancreas
Ovaries
Testes
Hormonal Feedback Mechanisms
Hormonal Imbalances
Immune System
• Fights disease
and foreign
invaders to the
body.
Eliminates
dysfunctional
cells.
Male Reproductive System
• Produces and delivers sperm
Female Reproductive System
• Produces eggs
and nourishes and
shelters the
unborn baby
Irregularities
Irregularities and Disorders
• Multiple Births- One pair of identical twins
is born for every how many births?
One in 250 births!
Oh No!
• Humans can have triplets, quadruplets,
quintuplets, and more.
• The chance of quadruplets is one in 705,000
births.
Infertility
• Unable to have children
• In the U.S. 15% of married couples
have difficulty producing offspring.
STD
• Sexually Transmitted Disease
• AIDS