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The hinge joint allows flexion
The Skeleton protects
vital organs
and extension
The Cranium (Skull)
protects the brain
The type of bone and joint
The ribs and
sternum protects the
heart and lungs
determine the movement
Joints allow
movement
Movement
Protection
1a) Skeleton
The Four Functions
Bone marrow produces
red and white blood
cells
Blood Production
Red blood cells carry
oxygen in haemoglobin
to working muscles
White blood cells
prevent infection /
fight disease
Support
The skeleton
gives the body
its shape
Muscles are mainly attached to the bones
on the outside of the body. While the vital
organs are attached to the inside
Cranium
Cervical (vertebrae)
Clavicle
Scapula
Humerus
Radius
Pelvis
Carpals
Ulna
Phalanges
Femur
Patella
Tibia
Tarsals
Metatarsals
Fibia
Phalanges
Skull
(Cranium)
There is no movement
in these joints
Examples
Pelvis
No Joint Cavity
Fixed or Immoveable
Joints
1a) Skeleton - Joints
Slightly Moveable
Joints
No joint cavity
Sternum
Examples
Some movement
Ribs
These are joints which allow movement,
they contain a joint cavity
Strong connective tissue which holds
bones together at joints
Ligaments
1a) Skeleton – Freely Moveable
Joints (Synovial Joints)
Cartilage
Produce synovial
fluid
Reduce
friction
Articular
Found at ends of
long bones
Is found in all joints
There are two main
types
Found between
vertibrae
Fibro
Act as a shock
absorber
Rotation
Ball and
Socket
Allows a full range of
movement – flexion and
extension / circumduction
/ abduction and adduction
Gliding
Pivot
Hinge
Flexion and
extension
1a) Skeleton – Feely Moveable
Joints (Synovial Joints)
Condyloid
Rotation / flexion
and extension
Saddle
Rotation
Types of
movement
Sporting
example
Heading the ball
in football
Types of
movement
Hinge (Knee
and Elbow)
1a) Skeleton – Joints and Sport
Specific Movements
Badminton
Gymnastics
Pivot
(Neck)
Flexion and
extension
Sporting
example
Condyloid (Wrist
and Ankle)
Sporting
example
Netball
shot
Kicking (football
/ rugby)
Ball and Socket (Hip
and Shoulder)
Tennis
Serve
Types of
movement
Types of
movement
Rotation /
flexion and
extension
Abduction and
adduction /
flexion and
extension /
circumduction
Darts
Sporting
Example
Cricket
Bowling
Deltoid
Pectorals
Triceps
Trapezius
Biceps
Latissimus
Dorsi
Abdominals
Quadriceps
Gluteus
Maximus
Hamstrings
Gastrocnemius
Also known as Anaerobic
activities
Sprinting
Weight lifting
Sporting examples
Contract quickly to produce fast and
powerful movements, they tire easily
Fast Twitch
1b) Muscles – Fast and Slow
Twitch Muscle Fibres
Slow Twitch
Contract slowly with little
force but do not tire easily
Tour De France
Sporting examples
Also known as Aerobic
activities
Long Distance
Running
Increased muscular
endurance
Improved Muscular
recovery
Reduces the chance of injury
and increases participation
Increased muscular
strength
How does improved muscle functioning
improve performance and participation
1b) Muscles – Effects of
Exercise on Muscles
Reduced exercise leads
to muscle Atrophy
(become smaller)
This is referred to as
Reversibility within S.P.O.R.T
and can be caused by injury
Composition and
efficiency of muscles
Increased exercise =
increased strength
Increased exercise = increased
muscular endurance
Muscles
become bigger
Muscle growth in known
as Hypertrophy
Increased exercise =
increased flexibility
2) Bicep muscle (also known as
the prime mover and agonist)
contracts (shortens)
1) Tendons attach
muscle to bone
3) Tricep muscle (Antagonist)
relaxes (lengthens)
1b) Muscles – Role and Function
of Tendons During Movement
4) The bicep pulls on the tendon
which in turn pulls on the bone
5) Movement occurs at the
elbow (Hinge joint) pulling the
forearm up towards the body
6) The muscle actions are
reversed to lower the forearm
1) Flexion of the Arm (Forearm
Moves Towards the Body)
2) Extension of the Arm (Forearm
Moves Away from the Body)
Where the tendon joins
to the bone.
Attach muscle to bone.
Origins
Stable and does
not move.
Scapular
Tendons
Scapular
Bicep
Movement
Origins
Tricep
Tendons
Movement
Bicep
Tricep
Radius
Radius
Humerus
Humerus
Ulna
Insertions
Where the tendon joins to the bone
which the muscle can move.
Ulna
Tendons
Allows muscle to pull on the
bone to create movement.
The Bicep (Agonist) contracts (shortens).
The Bicep (Antagonist) relaxes (lengthens).
The Tricep (Antagonist) relaxes (lengthens).
The Tricep (Agonist contracts (shortens).
There are three types of muscle contraction
The speed of
movement remains
the same throughout
the action
The muscle shortens
as it contracts e.g.
lifting the bar in a
bicep curl
Concentric
When doing the butterfly
stroke in swimming, the
arms and legs are moving
at relatively constant
speeds
Isokinetic
Isotonic
This muscle contraction can be
subdivided into two types
Eccentric
1b) Muscles – Muscular
Contractions
The muscle lengthens, but
under tension e.g. lowering the
bar in a bicep curl
Isometric
The muscle remains the same length throughout the
action. Certain parts of the body need to be kept still
while other parts are working
In a bicep curl, the back and
shoulder muscles are
working isometrically to
stablalise the body
Pushing in a rugby scrum,
when there is no movement,
is also an example of
isometric action
Due to all out effort / body cannot cope with
intensity of exercise / high intensity
Due to working for a
long time
Not enough oxygen /
no oxygen / anaerobic
Why the Body Produces
Lactic Acid
1b) Muscles – Lactic Acid
Sore /painful
muscles / stiffness /
seize up / stitch
How Lactic Acid Affects
Performance
Reduced
performance /
skills
Lose interest /
concentration /
motivation
Causes oxygen debt /
prolonged recovery
Increase breathing
rate / heart rate
Stop / collapse
Tired
muscles /
fatigue
Ensures a constant supply
of blood where needed
throughout the body
Blood carries white blood
cells to sites to fight infection
Blood transports waste products
from muscles and other locations
in the body e.g. carbon dioxide
from body cells to the lungs
Blood passes
through tubes called
blood vessels
Consists of the Heart and
Blood Vessels
1c) Cardiovascular System
Blood contains
essential nutrients
Oxygen if carried around the
system to where it is required to
release energy in the muscles
Nutrients
Oxygen
Transport
(blood carries)
Waste products
Functions of the
Circulatory system
Temperature Control
Blood absorbs and transfers heat from
warmer to cooler parts of the body
Protection (White
Blood Cells)
Carry antibodies to fight
infection
Carry platelets to clot blood
at wounds and cuts
Deoxygenated blood is pumped from the heart
to the lungs where it is oxygenated. It is returned
to the heart to be pumped around the body in
the systemic system.
Takes deoxygenated blood from the heart
around the body through the arteries.
Deoxygenated blood is returned through the
veins to the heart.
Systemic Circuit
1) Pulmonary Vein: Takes
Oxygenated blood from
lungs to the LA.
Pulmonary Circuit
1c) Cardiovascular System – The
Heart as a Double Pump
2) Aorta: Takes Oxygenated
blood from LV to the body.
Lungs
Pulmonary System
(Oxygenated Blood)
LA
3) Vena Cava: Takes
Deoxygenated blood from
body to the RA.
4) Pulmonary Artery: Takes
Deoxygenated blood from
RV to the lungs.
Pulmonary System
(Oxygenated Blood)
RA
RV
LV
Systemic System
(Deoxygenated Blood)
Systemic System
(Deoxygenated Blood)
RA – Right Atrium
RV – Right Ventricle
Body
LA - Left Atrium
LV – Left Ventricle
Tiny tubes, one
cell thick
Transport blood from
arteries to veins
Capillaries
One exception –
Pulmonary artery carries
deoxygenated blood
between heart and lungs
1c) Cardiovascular System – Blood Vessels
Arteries
Carry oxygenated
blood away from the
heart under high
pressure
Food, oxygen, carbon
dioxide and waste
products are exchanged
through their thin walls
Carry blood back to
the heart under low
pressure
Veins
Valves in the veins
prevent blood flowing
backwards, away from
the heart
A sprinter can recover from all
out effort in a matter of minutes
Time it takes for lactic acid in the
muscles to fall to acceptable levels
for muscles to start working
efficiently again
Recovery Rate
Marathon – requires longer periods
of recovery before heart rate and
respiratory rate return to normal
levels
1c) Cardiovascular System –
Participation and Performance
In longer events fatigue develops
much more gradually as the body
is able to process some of its lost
energy and minimise lactic acid
build up during exercise
Duration
Lactic acid accumulation and
oxygen debt is influenced by the
duration and nature of an activity
Sprinters consume energy very
quickly without taking in oxygen
(Anaerobic) which means that
the onset of fatigue occurs very
quickly, within seconds
When the rate at which muscles work
is greater than the bodies ability to
supply oxygen the result is a shortage
in oxygen which leads to fatigue
The supply of oxygen to our muscles is
limited by our capacity to take in
oxygen during a performance and how
efficiently we get that oxygen to the
working muscles
Oxygen Debt
In order for the muscles to
work again efficiently this
oxygen debt must be repaid
1c) Cardiovascular System –
Participation and Performance
Waste product this
produces is called
lactic acid
Builds up quickly in activities
requiring all out effort
(Anaerobic) e.g. 400 meters
Builds up slowly in
Aerobic activities
e.g. long distance
running
As muscles work without oxygen
lactic acid builds up this causes
muscular fatigue, leading to cramp
Lactic Acid
Anaerobic
exercise uses
glycogen rather
than oxygen
Cramp will only subside when
the muscle is rested and blood
brings fresh oxygen to break
down the lactic acid
Increased sweating
to cool body
Increased heart Rate to
meet demand for oxygen
Increased Stroke Volume –
amount of blood leaving the
ventricle on each beat
Short Term Effects of
Exercise
Blood diverted to Capillaries
just below the skin – causes
face to redden
Heat from body is radiated
from the skin
Increased Cardiac
Output
1c) Cardiovascular System – Effects of
Exercise
Long Term Effects of
Exercise
Increased stroke
volume
Muscle Hypertrophy
(Heart becomes bigger
and stronger)
Increased Cardiac Output =
Stroke Volume x Heart Rate
Lower resting
heart rate
RETIRED SPANISH CYCLIST, MIGUEL INDURAIN
HAS A RESTING HEART RATE OF 27 BPM.
Platelets to damaged
capillary areas
Carbon dioxide from
body cells to lungs
White blood cells
to sites of
Functions (blood
infection
Platelets
Blood is composed
of four elements
Oxygen from lungs to
body cells
carries)
White Cells
Heat from warmer to
cooler parts of the body
Plasma
Red Cells
Blood
1c) Cardiovascular System Blood
92% of plasma is water the
remainder is protein, glucose,
amino acids and waste products
such as carbon dioxide and urea
Produced in the bone
marrow
Platelets
Stick together in clumps where the skin
is broken, or on small damaged blood
vessels
Plasma
Protein and amino acids are
transported to cells in the body and
are used for growth and repair.
Glucose is used for energy
Haemoglobin + Oxygen =
Oxyhaemoglobin
From the lungs to the
working muscles
Carry Oxygen – attaches
to Haemoglobin
Made in bone
marrow e.g. Ribs
and Femur
Red Blood
Cells
1c) Cardiovascular System Blood
Larger than red
blood cells
White Blood
Cells
Made in bone marrow
and lymph glands
Main function is to
defend the body
against disease
Contain Phagocytes: pass through
capillary walls and surround germs
– they then produce enzymes
which destroy the germs
Contain antibodies which
fight against germs and
infection
The Lungs
Air Passages
The Diaphragm
The Respiratory System is
made up of
1c) Respiratory System Structure
Air Passages
A series of Air Passages
allow air and the Oxygen it
contains to be transferred
to the bloodstream
Removes Waste
Products such as
Carbon Dioxide
from the body
Diaphragm
A sheet of muscle
which encloses the
bottom of the thorax
Contraction and Relaxation of
the Diaphragm, combined with
the Intercostal Muscles
enables Breathing
Air is taken into the body
thorough the mouth and
nasal cavity
The Trachea
branches into two to
enter the lungs as
Bronchi
At the top of the throat is the
Epiglottis which prevents
food or other particles
entering the lungs
The Bronchus in
each lung divides into
Bronchioles
1c) Respiratory System Structure
Bronchioles sub –
divide into two small air
sacs Alveoli
The Alveoli are covered
with very small vessels,
Capillaries, which allow
oxygen and carbon
dioxide to pass to and from
the bloodstream
Alveoli is where
the exchange of
oxygen into the
blood and carbon
dioxide out of the
blood occurs
There are two phases in breathing,
Inspiration and Expiration
Inspiration (breathing in)
Expiration (breathing out)
The lungs are enclosed in a sealed,
flexible cavity called the thorax
The diaphragm and intercostal
muscles relax
Lungs contract to their original
size, forcing air out
The diaphragm and intercostal muscles
contract expanding the chest
Although there is no need to think
about breathing (it is involuntarily
controlled) it can also be consciously
controlled
Allows the lungs to expand, filling the
space created
1c) Respiratory System – Breathing
Mechanism
Air is sucked down
the windpipe and
into the lungs
Breathing out
Breathing in
The lungs
expand
Intercostal
muscles contract,
pulling the rib
cage up and out
As the chest expands, the diaphragm contracts.
This pulls down and makes the chest larger
Intercostal muscles
relax, lowering the rib
cage and making the
chest smaller
The lungs are
compressed,
pushing air out
of the lungs up
to the windpipe
As the chest is made smaller, the diaphragm
relaxes, making the chest even smaller
During exercise the body needs a supply of oxygen to
release energy in the muscles. Respiration must be
increased to provide that oxygen and remove carbon
dioxide from the muscles
The circulatory system
transports the oxygen to the
working muscles and carbon
dioxide to the lungs
The respiratory system takes
oxygen into the body and
removes carbon dioxide
1c) Respiratory System – Respiration and
Circulation Links
Increased tidal volume “amount of air
taken in and out”
As physical activity increases,
both the breathing rate and
heart rate increases to take in
and transport oxygen to the
working muscles
This results in:
Increased stroke volume “amount of
blood leaving the heart on each beat”
Increase cardiac output “stroke volume
x heart rate
Muscles feel
sore
E.g. repaying oxygen debt,
removing lactic acid
Improved efficiency leads to a quicker
/ more efficient rate of recovery
Builds up
slowly
Possible
injury
Aerobic
exercise
Fatigue
Effects on
performance
Reduced
performance
Anaerobic
exercise
Recovery Rate
Lactic Acid
Builds up
quickly
1c) Respiratory System – Participation and
Performance
Increased
efficiency of the
systems
Takes longer to build
up oxygen debt
Oxygen Debt
Can repay oxygen
debt quicker / more
efficiently
Duration
The more efficient your respiratory
and circulatory systems are the
longer you can exercise for
Increased efficiency of these
systems leads to quicker recovery
– repay oxygen debt quicker and
remove lactic acid more efficiently
Increased participation in
physical activity will lead to
an overall improvement of the
efficiency of the respiratory
system
Alveole in the bronchioles are
supplied with red blood cells
Allows haemoglobin in red blood cells to
absorb oxygen as well as carbon dioxide,
being released by the blood into the alveole
through the bronchioles and out of the body
through the lungs and mouth
Gaseous Exchange
1c) Respiratory System – Effects of Exercise
Upon Performance
1c) Respiratory System – Aerobic and
Anaerobic
Examples
You need to master the
basic skills before
attempting the complex
ones
Basic
They tend to be
transferable between
different activities
1d) Skill – Basic and
Complex
Require a higher
level of co-ordination
and control
Complex
Require more practice to
master and have more
scope for improvement
E.g. you would spend
more time improving
your forehand than
practicing a basic skill
like running
Specific to sport /
activity – usually nontransferable
Examples
Crowd
Opponents
Weather
Team mates
Skills can be classified in
different ways – they can be
divided into open and closed
skills
Affected by the environment and /
or external factors
OPEN SKILLS
Weather not an influence
Moving ball not an
influence
Are not affected by the
environment / external factors
1d) Skill – Open and
Closed
EXAMPLE
Hockey Dribble
Other players not an
influence
CLOSED SKILLS
EXAMPLE
In some sports skills
can be both open and
closed
Gymnastics Vault
Tennis
Player has to perform the skill
whilst watching their opponent,
how fast they are approaching,
where they are on the pitch – can
they shoot or pass to a team
mate?
The serve is a
closed skill
Once the ball is in play shots
become open skills
The floor and vault
are regulation
standard
There is no
change in the
environment and
no other people
influencing the
execution of the
skill
Balance
The abilities you
possess allow you to
perform skills at a more
advanced level
Flexibility
Agility
Examples
Co-ordination
Speed
Abilities are Genetic. You are born with basic abilities
which can be developed. These differ from skills as
skills are practised in order to be improved
Ability
1d) Skill – How Do Skills Differ
From Ability
Skill
A skill is something that has been learnt, the skill is practised over
and over until it is stored in long term memory for future use
Examples
Reaction time
Trampolining – Pike /
Straddle
FLEXIBILITY
Good co-ordination
results in consistent
contact with the ball
and control /
accuracy of the shot
CO-ORDINATION
Tennis - forehand
1d) Skill – Without Basic Abilities the
Development of Advanced Skills is
Difficult
SPEED
Hockey – outrunning
an opponent
REACTION TIME
Cricket – Batting stroke
AGILITY
Badminton
Good agility allows you to
change direction quickly, cover
the court and play a variety of
shots
BALANCE
Gymnastics - beam
Without the basic ability of balance it
would almost be impossible to perform
advanced skills such as a cart wheel or
back somersault without falling off the
beam
There are two different types of
feedback
1. EXTERNAL
2. INTERNAL
KNOWLEDGE OF
RESULTS
1d) Skill – Different Types of
Feedback
VERBAL
FEEDBACK TO DEVELOP PERFORMANCE
KNOWLEDGE OF
PERFORMANCE (HOW A
MOVEMENT FEELS)
VISUAL
When does feedback occur?
1. CONCURRENT
During performance
of the skill
Feedback is internal and
external
2. TERMINAL
Immediately after performance
has finished
Feedback is external
3. DELAYED
Up to 48 hours after
performance is finished
Feedback is external
Were you successful?
INTERNAL: How the skill
feels when it is performed
Knowledge of
results
1. CONCURRENT (During
performance of the skill)
2. TERMINAL
(Immediately after
performance)
EXTERNAL
EXTERNAL
Visual
Verbal feedback
from coach
Verbal
1d) Skill - Feedback
Knowledge of
Results
Highlight
positives about
performance
Feedback from
coach
3. DELAYED (Up to 49
hours after performance)
VISUAL
Analyse performance
using video analysis
Identify areas for
development –
give specific
feedback on how
to improve
VERBAL
Discussion with coach
Perform the whole skill (e.g. tennis serve) – practice
part of the skill (e.g. ball toss) – practice the whole
skill again (e.g. tennis serve)
Observe a role model performing
a skill and repeat it
Skill is performed over and
over again for a long period
of time
Whole-Part-Whole
Role Models
Massed Practice
1d) Skill – How do we
Learn Skills?
Trial and Error
Distributed Practice
Copying
Skill is performed over a short
period of time
Trying to perform a skill then
making adjustments to
performance based upon external
and internal feedback
Observe the skill being
performed by a teacher,
coach or elite athlete
and copy their technique
It is followed by a period of
rest
Skill is performed again for a
short period of time
The difference between the novice
and the top level performer is
obvious when looking at their skills
Adaptability: Struggle
to adapt skills to suit
different situations
Adaptability: Able to
adapt skills to suit
different situations
Time: Reduced time
available to train due to
factors such as work
commitments
NOVICE
PERFORMERS
1d) Skill – Novice and Top Level
Performers
Energy: Reduced
fitness levels due to
reduced training
Consistency: Mistakes
are frequent
Time: Increased time
available to train, often their
sport is their job, they get
paid
TOP LEVEL
PERFORMERS
Energy: Increased
fitness levels allows
performance to
continue at a high level
for duration of activity
Consistency: More
accurate, perform
skills to a high
standard even if
placed under pressure
Enables sense to be made of all the
information available, so that only useful
information is acted upon
Selective Attention
Venus watches
the oncoming
ball
INPUT
(sensory)
DECISION
MAKING (shot)
Venus gets into
position ready to hit
the ball
1d) Skill – Information
Processing Model
(Tennis Shot)
Venus gains
immediate
feedback by
watching her shot
FEEDBACK
(results)
MOTOR OUTPUT
(action)
Venus returns the
ball to her
opponent
“Motivation is the driving force that compels people to do
something, such as climb a mountain or revise for GCSE
exams”
“You do something in order to
“You do something because you
earn money, win a prize or to
get satisfaction from it”
please another person”
Motivation that comes from within
1. INTRINSIC
MOTIVATION
Examples
The enjoyment of
taking part in an
activity
Motivation that comes from outside
2. EXTRINSIC
MOTIVATION
1e) Motivation and Mental Preparation –
Intrinsic / Extrinsic Motivation
Money
Social interaction
with friends
Personal satisfaction
Examples
Trophies
Medals
Playing for your
country
Fame
Houses / Cars
“Arousal is about being excited, keen and
INVERTED U THEORY
mentally ready (or unready) to perform a difficult
B
task”
A
At ‘A’ – Competitor is underaroused and as a result
performed is reduced / low
(e.g. Dyer)
C
1e) Motivation and Mental
Preparation - Arousal
There are different levels of arousal in
sport, but too little means improvements
might be low, too much might lead to loss
of control
Note: the optimum point of
arousal can differ between
athletes and sports
For example: the Inverted U for a golfer
would be further left than the Inverted U for
a weight lifter
At ‘B’ – Competitor is at the
optimum level of arousal
and so performs at a high
standard
At ‘C’ – Competitor is overaroused and as a result
performance is reduced / low
(e.g. Zidane)
These are techniques to ensure that the athlete
reaches their optimum level of arousal (Point B on
the Inverted U graph). This will lead to consistent
participation and optimum performance
1. FOCUSING
You focus your
attention on what you
need to do to perform
well during
competition
2. RELAXATION
1e) Motivation and Mental Preparation
3. MENTAL REHEARSAL
(VISUALISATION)
This is where you go through the event
in your mind in advance, in detail. You
picture yourself performing well and
staying calm and confident
Techniques include
slow deep breathing
and relaxing different
muscle groups in turn
Gives you confidence
when you reach your
goal / target
MOTIVATION
How does it help to control
anxiety and motivate
participants?
ANXIETY
Helps you get ready to
perform, since you know
what you want to achieve
“Goal setting means setting targets that you
want to reach”
Divided into two types
Motivates you
to work hard to
achieve your
goals
1. SHORT-TERM
Goals that you can reach
quickly (short time frame) are
steps on the way to……..
2. LONG-TERM
Goals like winning
an Olympic medal
(long time frame)
1e) Motivation and Mental Preparation
– Goal Setting
Helps you to
feel in control
and so you
are less
anxious about
performance
SMARTER
SPECIFIC – exactly what you want to achieve
MEASURABLE – see if you’ve achieved it or not
AGREED – agree targets with your coach
REALISTIC – goals you an realistically reach
TIME-PHASED – so long term goals are reached in time
EXCITING – boring goals won’t motivate you
RECORDED – so you can monitor your progress
People start and
finish work at
different times
Leisure Time is when you are not at school or work, you
can do what you want when you want in your free time
Flexi working hours and
working from home allow
people to take part in leisure
activities during the day
The working week is
shorter than it used to
be, and it is also more
flexible
Shorter Working Week
At home there are laboursaving devices, reducing
the amount of time spent
on domestic chores
More people work
from home rather
than in an office, due
to computer links
Technology
1f) Social Reasons for Participation –
Reasons for Increased Leisure Time
Early Retirement
Increasing numbers of
people retire early, many
by the age of 50.
At this age people still enjoy
an active lifestyle and often
take up new sports and
leisure activities such as golf
Machines have replaced
muscle power, with
production lines controlled by
fewer people
This all leads to people
having more time to
spend on Leisure
Activities
Unemployment
Many people are unemployed, or work
part time. This means they have more
time to take part in leisure activities,
although the cost of taking part may
prevent them
Some local authorities subsidise the
costs for unemployed people to
encourage then to take part in leisure
activities
To lose
weight
To look
good
Improve stamina,
strength, flexibility
Medical
Necessity
Image
Physical / Mental
Well - Being
Reduce Stress
Levels
Fitness
Illness
Health
Increase Life
Expectancy
Healthy body
allows you to more
active
1f) Social Reasons for Participation – Why
People Participate in Physical Activities
Prevents
boredom
Leisure
Meet new
people
Learn to relate to
people / develop
social skills
Socialise
Enjoyment
Helps reduce
stress
Hobby
Gets you out of
the house
Friendship
Make new
friends
Coaches
Life Guard
Employment
Professional
Athlete
Vocation
Gym
Instructor
1f) Social Reasons for Participation – Why
People Participate in Physical Activities
Will have another
form of
employment
Vocation
Semi – Pro Status
(amateur performers)
Way of earning
money but not
enough to live off
Way of earning
money
Professional
May take part in
another activity as a
recreation e.g.
professional
footballers play golf
BTEC / Vocational
Sports Coaching
Awards
A – Level PE
GCSE PE
CSLA
Examination
Courses
JSLA
1g) School
Introduces pupils to a
variety of activities
Students, irrespective of where
they live should have similar
experiences in PE
National Curriculum
Requirements
Makes pupils more
aware of health and
fitness issues
Physical Education is
compulsory
Develop an understanding of
activities, skills, tactics,
safety and benefits of
physical activity
Club may use school facilities for
training / matches.
Links between schools and local clubs
benefit both the school and the club
Students may play for local
clubs – providing the club with
a constant supply of members
Links With Local
Sports Clubs
Clubs can help school with coaching
and by allowing them to use their
facilities for training and matches
1g) School
Extra Curricular
Activities
Often include interschool
fixtures
Links with local
clubs
Facilities
They take place outside of
normal school time
Factors determining extra
– curricular activities
Important as they help develop high
standards and help talented
students to have the chance to play
for their county or country
Activities included in PE
curriculum
Interest and skills of
teachers
Some activities are suitable for all
ages such as golf, where skill is
almost equally as important as
physical attributes
Gymnastics – is associated
with younger people as the
body is more flexible
The sport and leisure
activities people take part in
is often closely related to
their age
As the body ages
flexibility reduces at the
joints, sprains and other
injuries become more
frequent
As people get older they
take part in sport less and
the nature of the activity
also changes
Walking, green bowling and
recreational swimming are
some activities enjoyed by
1h)
people of all ages
In contact sports such as
rugby, recovery time after
injury takes longer as
people age
Age
Social Background –
Positive and Negative Effects
More female
commentators
Gender
Social
Attitudes
Coaching
Labour
saving
devices
Reasons for low
participation levels
Role
Models
(Fewer women than men take part
in sport)
Ways in which
women are being
encourage to
participate in sport
Media
Coverage
Finance
Increased
prize
money
More female
role models
More
media
coverage
Socially
acceptable to
take part in
sport
Canoeing and sailing as
rivers and lakes tend to
be found in the country
Climbing and
abseiling as cliffs
and rock faces
tend to be found
in the country
Walking, hiking and
fell running
common in the
countryside
Pony trekking, horse riding
are common countryside
activities
Schools play a major part in
developing attitudes towards
participation in sport
Specialist facilities such as
fencing clubs are located
in cities / towns
1h) Social Background –
Positive and Negative Effects
Pupils have access
to PE as part of the
National Curriculum
Family play,
encouraging
participation
Some climbing
available at
specially built
climbing walls
City
Access
Education
Also have access
to examination
course such as
GCSE and A Level PE
Some activities require
significant financial
investment for equipment
and travel
Facilities available in
cities may differ to those
available in the country
Country
Some water sports may
be available in dockland
developments
Financial support –
equipment,
transport and
clothing
Family
(major influence in
determining interest in
sport and leisure
activities)
By taking them
to watch sport
By going to watch
them play
Parents and sibling act
as role models
Not all Peer Pressure is positive and
people could be discouraged from
participating due to friends influence
Some countries have strong traditions
in sport e.g. New Zealand and Rugby
Friends may have
the same interests
playing in school
and club teams
Can have both a positive
and negative influence on
participation
Tradition and
Culture
People are often influenced
by their friends this is known
as Peer Group Pressure
Peer Groups
Friends may share the
same interests in
recreational activities
such as mountain biking
and swimming
In the UK there are regional
strength e.g. Rugby league in
Yorkshire and Lancashire
1h) Social Background –
Positive and Negative Effects
In the Lake District
there are opportunities
for many outdoor
activities
Environment
Is a contributing factor to
participation and might be
sport specific
Living in Cornwall may
offer the chance to take
part in surfing
In East Anglia there is no
Mountain walking but plenty of
water sport activities
Politics
The Government
can influence
participation
Ensuring time for
physical education in
schools
Providing funding
for facilities,
coaching and
equipment
Promoting sport and
leisure activities as being
beneficial to health
T.V. and newspaper coverage of an
activity can create the growth
Events courage
significantly influenced
by money / sponsorship
e.g. Football
Advertise games,
events and
competitions
Influence on
Activities
Minority sports may not get the same
coverage as a result. Note the media
can help to increase awareness and
participation in these sports
Increased opportunity
for a career
Desire to be like role
models e.g. Wayne
Rooney, Lewis Hamilton
and Amir Khan
Some activities
require money to
access e.g. Sky
Sports
Media
This is not always good
as the athlete may set
a bad example e.g.
using drugs or arguing
with referee
Role Models
Autobiographies and
websites make
performers more
accessible
1h) Social Background –
Positive and Negative Effects
Newspaper, Radio
and T.V. interviews
help to create role
models
More clubs /
organised fixtures
Disability
Easier access to
venues / facilities
Sport for people with disabilities has changed, with
Governing bodies devising rules and activities
suitable for all disabilities
Society is more
aware
Increased coverage of
Para Olympics –
promoting participation
Specialist coaches
Role Models
Increased
availability
Public transport
more accessible
Grass Playing
Fields
Gymnasium
Swimming Baths
Local Parks
Sport Centres
Astroturf
Swimming Pool
School & Collages are
Required to Provide Facilities
for Physical Education
Control Sport and
Leisure Facilities
Educational Departments
Schools Hire Facilities to:
Adult
Education
Playing Fields
Leisure Departments
Local Authority
Community
Clubs
1i) Local and National
Facilities
Concept of
‘Sport for All’
To improve national
and international
records (excellence)
To improve levels of
performance in
terms of world
rankings (medals)
UK Sports
Council Targets
National Authorities
Provide the Best
Coaches
The UK Sports Council Provide High Level
Sport Development at a Number of
Specialist Centres Around the Country
(Centres of Excellence)
Provide Sport
Psychologists
Provide the Best
Equipment
Help Improve
Performance of National
Teams / Players by
To improve the success of English
teams in international competitions.
Have the Most up to
Date Technology and
Medical Care
Provide the Best
Facilities
Some larger hotels
have golf courses and
tennis courts
Have leisure
suites with
swimming pools,
fitness rooms.
Many commercial clubs provide a facility
which would otherwise not be available,
but they exist primarily to make a profit
Commercial
Sports Clubs
Hotels
Hotels are often fully booked
and local residents are unable
to gain access to facilities on a
regular basis and when they
can it is at a cost
Commercial organisations providing sporting facilities
for competition and recreation to make a profit
Private Enterprise
1i) Local and National
Facilities
Squash, tennis and golf
clubs are examples of
private developments
There has been a growth
in fitness gyms allowing
people to access their
facilities at varying rates
Voluntary Organisations
Sports clubs e.g. cricket and tennis clubs provide specialist facilities for their members. Many own these
facilities, however new clubs often have to hire facilities from establishments such as local schools.
Voluntary organisations are not commercial
organisations intent on making a profit
The range of movement at the joints. This is
important as it reduces injury and allows for a
full range of movement. It is essential in
hurdling, gymnastics and swimming.
The ability to lift a maximum
weight in one attempt. It is
essential in weight lifting.
Strength
Flexibility
2a) Components of Fitness
Muscular Endurance
The ability of the muscles to contract
over a long period of time without tiring.
Important in activities such as walking,
running and cycling.
Cardiovascular Endurance
Speed
The ability to move the body and limbs
quickly, as in running fast or throwing a ball in
cricket or rounder's.
The ability of the heart to pump blood
and deliver oxygen where needed in the
body. Important in continuous activities
such as long distance running.
The ability to change direction
quickly e.g. skiing.
Simple – reacting to a
signal e.g. sprint start
gun.
Putting actions involving the
limbs and the whole body
together e.g. pole vault.
Agility
Coordination
Reaction Time
2a) Components of Fitness
Static – holding a
position without
movement
Balance
Dynamic – maintaining a
position when moving e.g.
surfing
Choice – responding to a
variety of signals e.g. playing
a cricket shot.
Timing
The ability to perform an action
or movement at the exact time
e.g. playing a cricket stroke.
Food is the body’s source of energy. Diet
is important, not only to maintain healthy
body systems, but also to provide energy
for exercise.
It is important to have a balance of all 7 types
of foods. Eating the correct quantities and
combinations will keep the body systems
functioning properly, keep hair and skin in
good condition and reduce the chances of
obesity.
2b) Factors Affecting Fitness - Diet
Provides Energy
Food does the following
Contributes to Good General Health
Repairs Injured Tissue
Helps our Body Grow
Simple – sugars e.g.
jams, honey, chocolate
and milk.
Complex – starches e.g.
vegetables, cereals, rice, pasta
and bread.
They maintain our body’s energy stores. The
body breaks down carbohydrates to give glucose
and glycogen, the main sources of energy.
Saturated – found in
animal products e.g.
milk, meat, cheese and
butter.
Energy can be provided by fats but it Is not readily
available as energy from carbohydrates.
Carbohydrates
Proteins are made from
Amino Acids and are
essential in building cells,
making blood and
repairing muscle tissue.
Polyunsaturates
– found in fish
and vegetables
oils.
Fats
2b) Factors Affecting Fitness Diet
Cholesterol – found in fatty
animal products. Too much
cholesterol in the blood
leads to clogging of the
arteries, increasing blood
pressure.
Fats: provide energy, keep the body
warm, protect vital organs.
Proteins
Vitamins
Proteins: make tissue, bones
and skin, repair damaged tissue
and enable growth.
Vitamins: regulate chemical reactions in the
body, release energy from food, maintain
resistance against disease, help with growth
and repair.
Trace substances found in food
which are necessary for the
normal functioning of the body.
Examples include: calcium in
milk, iron in meat, liver and
green vegetables.
Fibre does not contain nutrients
but provides bulk for food and is
essential to digestion.
Helps to prevent
constipation.
Minerals are very small
quantities of chemical
substances in food.
Encourages slower
release of energy.
Minerals
Fibre
2b) Factors Affecting Fitness - Diet
Makes up two thirds of
the body’s content.
Fluids must be replaced to
prevent dehydration,
especially during physical
activity.
Water
Found in wholemeal
bread, vegetables, fruit
and cereals.
Lost through sweating, urine
and breathing.
Hot weather can also
increase the loss of
fluids and cause
dehydration.
Small Amount
of Body Fat
Broad shoulders
Narrow Hips
Square Head
Muscular Arms
Muscular Legs
Mesomorph
2b) Factors Affecting Fitness - Somatotypes
Wide Hips
Ectomorph
Endomorph
Large Head
Narrow Shoulders and Hips
Narrow Shoulders
High Forehead
Lots of Body Fat
Thin Arms and Legs
Fat on Arms and Legs
Little Muscle, Small
Amounts of Body Fat
Thin Face
Body
Builder
Weight Lifters
Sprinters
Rugby
Player
Swimmer
Rugby Prop
Sumo
Wrestler
2b) Factors Affecting Fitness – Somatotype
Associated Sports
High Jumper
Long Distance
Runner
These factors can not only affect the
sport that you play but also your
position within a team game.
Being heavy is an advantage in
games such as rugby.
Weight is not as important
to backs, who rely upon
abilities such as speed and
agility.
Weight
Being heavy helps forwards
especially props and second
rows to perform in areas of the
game such as the scrum.
2b) Factors Affecting Fitness –
Height and Weight
Height
Being tall is an advantage
in activities such as the
high jump and sports like
basketball.
Being short is an
advantage in sports
like horse racing and
activities like
gymnastics.
In the case of basketball
your upper body will
become almost over
trained
As suggested by
current world
records males
tend to have
higher levels of
endurance /
strength / speed
and power
Your fitness will be
influenced by your
disability
Disability
Gender
2b) Factors Affecting Fitness – Age,
Gender and Disability
Age
As you age your fitness levels prevent you from
participating in competitive activities that require
high levels of cardiovascular / muscular endurance,
flexibility and explosive power / speed
As you age activities become more
recreational / social
Females tend to have
higher levels of
flexibility and balance
Increased Blood
Pressure
This can cause Obesity
Joints
Heart
Eating more than required for
our daily energy needs causes
the body to store this excess in
the form of fat
When a person becomes fat
and overweight there are
serious health risks. Areas
effected include the:
This can have a negative
effects
Over Eating
Shortness of
breath
Illness
Inability to
exercise
Injury
Muscles
2b) Factors Affecting Fitness –
Over / Under Eating and Stress
Under Eating
Health Risks
Increased Blood
Pressure
Stress
Anorexia
Inability to take part in
physical activity
Physical
Health Risks
Mental
Health Risks
Lack of
Energy
Increased chance of
Heart Attack
Anxiety – which can
effect participation and
as a result fitness
Body not being provided
with sufficient energy
from food to meet calorie
demands of activity
Shortness of
Breath
Amphetamines
Alcohol
Cocaine
Caffeine
Cannabis
Socially Unacceptable
Socially Acceptable
Nicotine (smoking)
2b) Factors Affecting
Fitness - Drugs in Sport
Heroin
Performance Enhancing
Anabolic Steroids
Narcotic Analgesics
Stimulants
Beta Blockers
Diuretics
Blood Doping
Improved Reaction
Time
Increased Blood
Pressure
Reduces Feeling of
Fatigue
Effects on Body /
Performance
Information
Increase Heart Rate
and Stimulates the
Nervous System
Nicotine: is a
Poison that is
Addicitve
Is a Diuretic – Causes
Dehydration Which Leads to
Cramp and Impairs
Performance
Long Term Effect
– Liver Damage
Caffeine
Effects on Body /
Performance
Alcohol
Tar: Treacly Brown
Substance that Collects in
the Lungs
Effects on Body /
Performance
Inability to Sustain
Physical Effort During
Performance
Carbon
Monoxide:
Poisonous Gas
in the Smoke
Information
Reduce
Fitness
Nicotine
(smoking)
Can Cause
Throat and Lung
Cancer
Can Cause Loss of
Balance,
Coordination and
Slow Down Reaction
Time
Contains Ethanol Which Acts
on the Brain to Affect Balance,
Speech and Coordination
2b) Factors Affecting Fitness
– Socially Acceptable Drugs
Information
Slower Lactic
Acid Removal
Tar Clogs Arteries,
Breathing Tubes and
Lungs, Reducing the
Efficiency of the
Respiratory System
Increases Heart Rate and
Blood Pressure, Leading to
an Increased Chance of
Heart Disease
Haemoglobin Absorbs Carbon Monoxide
Before Oxygen and so Less Oxygen can
be Taken to the Working Muscles
Tar: clogs up
arteries, breathing
tubes and lungs
Develop smokers
cough
Risk of heart
disease
Risk of lung
cancer
Reduces life
expectancy
Suppress
appetite
Health Related
Addiction to
nicotine
Increased heart
rate / blood
pressure
Haemoglobin attracted
to carbon monoxide
and not oxygen
2b) Factors Affecting Fitness –
Smoking
Inability to sustain
physical effort
Inability to participate
due to illness
Performance Related
Poor health resulting
from poor motivation and
participation
Inability to train
Breathing
difficulties
Causes
Dehydration
Also Known as
‘Speed’ or ‘Uppers’
Can be
Fatal
Feeling of
Exhilaration and
Energy
Information
Increases Energy
Levels and Lifts
Depression
Used by South Americans to
Help Them Run Long
Distances When Hunting
Information
Amphetamines
(Stimulant)
Can be
Fatal
Cocaine
2b) Factors Affecting Fitness –
Socially Unacceptable Drugs
Cannabis
Heroin
Can Be Fatal
Information
Produces a
Mild
Intoxication
More Likely to
Cause Cancer
than Tobacco
Information
Extremely
Addictive
Produces a
Strong
Intoxication
Caffeine
Amphetamines
Irregular Heart
Beats
Increased
Hostility
Increased
Blood
Pressure
Addiction
Improved Chance
of Winning Money /
Medals
Risks
Increased Reaction
Time
Increased Heart
Rate
Examples
Physiological Benefits
Increased Levels of
Work Maintained
Increased Confidence
Extrinsic Benefits
Stimulants
Improved
Performance
/ Records
Associated Sports
Most Sports
2b) Factors Affecting Fitness –
Performance Enhancing Drugs
Sprinting
HGH
Examples
Anabolic Steroids
Testosterone
Associated Sports
Body Building
Weight Lifting
Nandrolone
Risks
High Blood
Pressure
Infertility
Aggressive
Behaviour
Facial Hair
(Females)
Heart
Disease
Physiological
Benefits
Increase
Muscle Size
and Strength
Repairs
Damaged
Muscle Tissue
Extrinsic
Benefits
Improved
Performance /
Records
Improved Chance of
Winning Money /
Medals
Insomnia
Tranquillisers
Low Blood
Pressure
Propranolol
Depression
Improved Chance
of Winning Medals /
Money
Improved Performance /
Records
Risks
Slow Down Heart
Beat & Breathing
Rate
Reduce Anxiety
Levels
Examples
Extrinsic Benefits
Snooker
Physiological Benefits
Counter Acts Release
of Adrenaline
Beta Blockers
Associated Sports
2b) Factors Affecting Fitness –
Performance Enhancing Drugs
Rifle Shooting
Increase Number of
Red Blood Cells
Marathon
Physiological Benefits
Improved Transport of
Oxygen to Working
Muscles
Darts
Blood Doping
Associated Sports
Tour De
France
Examples
Increased Number of Red Blood
Cells Enables More Oxygen to
be Carried to Working Muscles
Extrinsic Benefits
Risks
Allergic
Reactions
Kidney
Damage
HIV
Improve
Performance /
Records
Improved Chance
of Winning Money /
Medals
Encourage Sleep, Allows
Body to Repair /
Recover
Suppress Pain,
Enables Athlete to
Perform when Injured
Improved
Performance /
Records
Highly Addictive
Apathy
Analgesics are a
Pain Killer
Constipation
Risks
Physiological Benefits
Narcotics Cause
Sleep
Examples
Morphine
Extrinsic Benefits
Improved Chance of
Winning Medals /
Money
Any Physically
Demanding Sport
Narcotic Analgesics
Associated Sports
Rugby
2b) Factors Affecting Fitness –
Performance Enhancing Drugs
Heroin
Judo
Body Building
Probenicide
Diuretics
Examples
Associated Sports
Horse Riding
Boxing
Physiological Benefits
May Disguise Traces
of Drugs in Urine
Risks
Rashes
Reduces Body Weight by
Increasing Amount of
Water in the Urine
Extrinsic Benefits
Heart Damage
Nausea
Dehydration
Improved
Performance /
Records
Improved Chance of
Winning Medals /
Money
Many tests have been developed specifically so that people can
test specific areas of their fitness and then compare their
performance with people from different parts of the country and
even the world. It is important that test follow the same
procedures so that results are accurate
Co-ordination
2c) Effects of Fitness on
Performance Power
Cardiovascular
Endurance
Speed
Fitness Tests
Agility
Flexibility
Reaction Time
Muscular
Endurance
At the end of 12
minutes, the distance
to the nearest 100
metres is recorded
Run or walk laps of the
400m metre track for 12
minutes
This test cardiovascular
endurance
2c) Effect of Fitness on Performance –
Cardiovascular Endurance
1) Instructions are given at the
start of the CD which also signals
when to change pace
2) The pace must be judged so
the person puts on foot over
the line as the beep sounds
This test cardiovascular
endurance
3) This is repeated a number of
times and then the time between
the beeps is shortened requiring
a quicker pace
4) When the person can
no longer keep up with the
beeps / pace they drop
pout and record the level
they achieved
1) After a suitable warm up,
the subject lies face down in
the direction they will run
2) After the starting
signal they should run
the route shown to the
left as fast as possible
Illinois Run (measures agility)
2c) Effects of Fitness on Performance –
Speed and Agility
Speed
The time taken to do a short sprint between 30 – 50 metres is taken with a stop watch.
There needs to be a moving start, otherwise reaction time, explosive strength and sprint
start technique become significant factors. Distances longer than 50 metres might
involve elements of muscular endurance.
This measures flexibility at the hip
joint, which is generally restricted
in movement by the hamstrings
2) The bare feet are placed
against the edge of the box
and the back of the legs in
contact with the floor
1) Subject needs to warm up
first
Sit and Reach
(Flexibility)
3) The subject reaches slowly
along the bench with both hands,
fingers outstretched as far as
possible and this distance is
recorded
2c) Effects of Fitness on Performance –
Flexibility and Balance
Stork Stand
(Balance)
1) Stand on both feet, hands on hips,
the non-balance leg is lifted so that
the toes are placed against the
preferred balance leg, the weight is
then taken on the ball of the foot and
the length of the time this is held is
taken
2) The test is finished when the
non balance foot is placed back
onto the floor, the time the
balance was held is recorded
Press Up Test
2c) Effects of Fitness on Performance –
Muscular Endurance
Sit Up Test
2c) Effects of Fitness on Performance –
Co-ordination, Reaction Time and Power
2d) Fitness Training Principles – Personal Exercise
Programme / Warm up & Cool Down
2d) Fitness Training Principles –
S.P.O.R.T
2d) Fitness Training Principles –
F.I.T.T
2e) Training Methods – Circuit /
Fartlek / Interval Training
2e) Training Methods – Weight /
Continuous / Flexibility Training
Greater Supply of
Blood Sent Around the
Body to Working
Muscles
Circulatory Rate
Increases
Greater Intake of
Oxygen to Meet
Demand From
Working Muscles
Breathing Rate
Increases
Circulation
Remove
More Carbon
Dioxide
Respiration
2f) Training Effects – Short
Term Effects
Pulse Rate
Increases
Muscles
Pulse Rate
Sweating
Heart Pumps Blood
Containing Oxygen to
Working Muscles
Stroke Volume
Increases
Body Temperature
Increases
The Body Sweats to
Cool the Body
Down
Muscles Ache
Lactic Acid
Build Up
The extent of the increase in muscle
mass is influenced by the type of
training that is undertaken
Rate of recovery speeds up
as body can repay oxygen
debt more efficiently
Reduction in body fat and
an increase in muscle mass
Body
Composition
Rate of
Recovery
2f) Training Effects – Long Term
Effects
Greater levels of selfesteem and confidence
Nervous System
Sleeping patterns
become more regular
Reaction times are
faster
Alertness levels
improve
Concentration enhanced
Resting heart rate is
lower
Heart rate increases
more slowly as
exercise begins
Quicker heart rate
recovery
Stroke volume
increases
Greater cardiac
output
Circulatory
System
Hear becomes bigger with
thicker walls (hypertrophy)
More red blood
cells
2f) Training Effects – Long Term
Effects
Respiratory
System
Diffusion in the lungs
increases
Greater VO2 max
More alveoli in the
lungs
Can cope better with
lactic acid
Lungs have a greater vital
capacity as diaphragm and
intercostal muscles get stronger
Tendons Become
Stronger
Ligaments Become
More Flexible
Calcium Added to Bone
Tissue Strengthening the
Bones
Cartilage
Becomes Thicker
Skeleton
2f) Training Effects – Long Term
Effects
Increase in Muscle
Mitochondria
‘Powerhouse’ Sites
Where Most of the
Energy for Muscle
Movement is
Produced
Muscular System
Muscle
Hypertrophy
Muscles Become
Bigger and Stronger
Improved Muscular
Flexibility
Increase in Muscle
Myoglobin
Absorbs Oxygen From the
Blood and Takes it to the
Mitochondria in the Muscle