Survey
* Your assessment is very important for improving the workof artificial intelligence, which forms the content of this project
* Your assessment is very important for improving the workof artificial intelligence, which forms the content of this project
QuickTime™ and a TIFF (Uncompressed) decompressor are needed to see this picture. Physiology By: Forrest Hansen http://picturethis.pnl.gov/picturet.nsf/All/6_.RKU?opendocument http://pami.uwaterloo.ca/~gsdharwa/b_c_i/eeg_signal.htm Dendrites Nervous System The main cell associated with the nervous system is the neuron. The neuron’s parts are shown below. Axon Nucleus QuickTime™ and a TIFF (Uncompressed) decompressor are needed to see this picture. Cell body Meets Standards: b, c, d, and e Myelin Sheaths Nodes Axon Terminals Nervous System Neurons carry electrical signals called impulses. Quic kTime™ and a TIFF (Unc ompres sed) decompress or are needed to see this picture. Neurons carry impulses from reactions in the environment or transmit messages to the rest of the body from the brain. Nervous System There are three types of neurons: Motor neurons, sensory neurons, and interneurons. Sensory neurons carry their impulses from the sense organs, such as the eye, to the spinal cord and brain. Motor neurons carry impulses from the brain and spinal cord to the rest of the body, such as the muscles and glands. Interneurons connect the sensory and motor neurons. QuickTime™ and a TIFF (Uncompressed) decompressor are needed to see this picture. Nervous System To activate an impulse in a neuron, a stimulus is needed. When a neuron is stimulated, the impulse travels along the axon and into the axon terminals. stimulus QuickTime™ and a TIFF (Uncompressed) decompres sor are needed to see this picture. Nervous System Neurons can transfer their impulse signal to other neurons or to other cells to tell them to do a certain activity such as make a muscle contract. First Neuron QuickTime™ and a TIFF (Uncompressed) decompressor are needed to see this picture. Second Neuron Nervous System When impulses reach the axon terminals they release neurotransmitters. Serotonin is a neurotransmitters. These neurotransmitters diffuse across a gap between the two cell and land on the other cell’s receptors. This triggers an impulse in the other neuron, thus continuing the impulse. Neurotransmitters can also tell other cells to start doing something. QuickTime™ and a TIFF (Uncompressed) decompressor are needed to see this picture. Nervous System When a neuron starts an impulse from a stimulus from the environment, the impulse goes through a network of neurons into the spinal cord and then into the brain for processing. To brain QuickTime™ and a TIFF (Uncompressed) decompressor are needed to see this picture. To spinal cord In the case of reflexes, the impulse does not travel to the brain and goes directly to the Stimulus spinal cord to make the rections faster. http://diabetes.niddk.nih.gov/dm/pubs/complications_nerves/index.htm Nervous System When the brain wants to send commands to the organs it starts the initial impulse and that impulse travels along a network of neurons to the organ that is being manipulated. Initial impulse QuickTime™ and a TIFF (Uncompressed) decompressor are needed to see this picture. Sent to other organs Skeletal System The role of the skeletal system is to provide the body with support, protect internal organs, provide movement, store minerals, and provide a place for blood cell formation QuickTime™ and a TIFF (Uncompressed) decompressor are needed to see this picture. Skeletal System The skeletal system is made up of bones. Bones are living tissue that are made up of protein fibers and living cells that are surrounded by calcium salts. QuickTime™ and a TIFF (Uncompressed) decompressor are needed to see this picture. Skeletal System The periosteum is a layer of connective tissue that surrounds the bones. QuickTime™ and a TIFF (Uncompressed) decompressor are needed to see this picture. The outer layer of bones is made up of compact bone. In this compact bone, there are Haversian canals which contain blood vessels and nerves. Skeletal System The innermost part of the bone is the spongy bone. Cavities inside bones hold bone marrow. The two types of bone marrow are yellow and red. The yellow bone marrow contains fat, and the red bone marrow makes red blood cells, some white blood cells, and platelets. QuickTime™ and a TIFF (Uncompressed) decompressor are needed to see this picture. Skeletal System Because our bones don’t stay in one place and we are able to move our arms and legs, joints are necessary. QuickTime™ and a TIFF (Uncompressed) decompressor are needed to see this picture. Joints allow bones to move in different directions without damaging eachother. Skeletal System The three types of joints are: Fixed joint Immovable Joints: allow no movement, bones are interlocked and held together by connective tissue. QuickTime™ and a TIFF (Uncompressed) decompressor are needed to see this picture. Example: joints in the skull. Skeletal System Slightly Movable Joints: joints that allow a small amount of movement. Example: joints in vertebrae. QuickTime™ and a TIFF (Uncompressed) decompressor are needed to see this picture. Skeletal System Freely Movable Joints: QuickTime™ and a TIFF (Uncompressed) decompressor are needed to see this picture. joints that can move in more than one direction. Sub-categories: Ball-andsocket joint in shoulder, hinge joint in elbow, pivot joint in elbow, and saddle joint in hand. QuickTime™ and a TIFF (Uncompressed) decompressor are needed to see this picture. Muscular System The muscular system is comprised of all the muscle tissue in the body. QuickTime™ and a TIFF (Uncompressed) decompressor are needed to see this picture. Meets Standards: h Muscular System The three types of muscle tissue are: Smooth Muscle: not under voluntary control, found in stomach, blood vessels, and small and large intestines. Cardiac Muscle: only found in the heart, involuntary. QuickTime™ and a TIFF (Uncompressed) decompressor are needed to see this picture. Skeletal Muscle: attached to bones. Used for voluntary actions such as arm movement. QuickTime™ and a TIFF (Uncompressed) decompressor are needed to see this picture. QuickTime™ and a TIFF (Uncompressed) decompressor are needed to see this picture. Muscular System Myofibrils make up the muscle fibers. These fibers are comprised of actin and myosin. These fibers are separated into sections by z-discs. The sarcomere is the center of these seperated units. QuickTime™ and a TIFF (Uncompressed) decompressor are needed to see this picture. Muscular System For a muscle to contract, the myosin must attach to the actin, forming cross-bridges, and pull the actin fibers together. This is called the sliding filament model of muscle contraction. QuickTime™ and a TIFF (Uncompressed) decompressor are needed to see this picture. Muscular System This process requires energy, which comes in the form of ATP, or Adenosine Triphosphate. ATP is a renewable source of energy that every cell in the body uses. QuickTime™ and a TIFF (Uncompressed) decompressor are needed to see this picture. Muscular System The brain controls the contractions of muscles by using the motor neurons in the nervous system. Where motor neurons meet, it is called a neuromuscular junction. 1. Axon 2. Axon terminals QuickTime™ and a TIFF (Uncompressed) decompressor are needed to see this picture. 3. Muscle cell 4. Myofibril 5 5. Neuromuscular Junction In this junction a type of neurotransmitter called acetylcholine is released which transfers the impulse to the muscle cell. Muscular System These impulses in the muscle cells cause calcium ions (Ca2+) to be released. These calcium ions cause the reactions between myosin and actin. Neuromuscular Junction QuickTime™ and a TIFF (Uncompressed) decompressor are needed to see this picture. When there is no more acetylcholine, the muscle cell pumps the calium ions back into storage and the contraction stops. Muscular System Tendons connect muscles to the bones in the skeletal system. Relaxed Contracted Skeletal muscles tend to work in pairs. If one muscle contracts and the other relaxes the joint will bend in one direction. QuickTime™ and a TIFF (Uncompressed) decompressor are needed to see this picture. Integumentary System The integumentary system is made up of the skin, hair, nails, and certain glands. The integumentary system is a barrier against infection and injury, helps regulate body temperature, removes wastes, and provides protection against UV rays from the sun. QuickTime™ and a TIFF (Uncompressed) decompressor are needed to see this picture. Integumentary System The epidermis the the outer layer of skin. The outer layer of the epidermis is made up of dead cells and the inner layer is made up of living cells. QuickTime™ and a TIFF (Uncompressed) decompressor are needed to see this picture. Integumentary System Melanocytes are cells that produce melanin in the epidermis. This causes the brown pigment in skin. The dermis is the inner layer of the skin. Blood vessels in the dermis constrict in cold times to reduce heat loss. QuickTime™ and a TIFF (Uncompressed) decompressor are needed to see this picture. The sebaceous glands produce an oily substance that keeps the skin waterproof and flexible. Sweat glands produce sweat in hot times. The water in sweat evaporates and reduces heat. Integumentary System Hair and nails are mostly made up of keratin. Hair: •Covers and protects head from ultraviolet light from the sun •In nostrils, eyelashes, and ear canals prevents foreign particles from entering the body. hair QuickTime™ and a TIFF (Uncompressed) decompressor are needed to see this picture. Integumentary System Nails: •Protect tips of fingers and toes •Grow from the nail root located near tips of fingers and toes •Grow four times as fast on the fingers than the toes QuickTime™ and a TIFF (Uncompressed) decompressor are needed to see this picture. Circulatory System The heart, lungs, blood vessels, and the blood are all part of the circulatory system. The heart is the organ that pumps the blood throughout the body. The muscle in the heart is called myocardium. The upper chamber, which receives the blood is called the atrium, and the lower chamber is called the ventricle, which pumps the blood out to the body. Meets Standards: a, g QuickTime™ and a TIFF (Uncompressed) decompressor are needed to see this picture. Circulatory System In pulmonary circulation, the oxygen poor blood is pumped to the lungs, the carbon dioxide is deposited from the blood, and oxygen is absorbed into the blood, making it oxygen rich again. QuickTime™ and a TIFF (Uncompressed) decompressor are needed to see this picture. Circulatory System The systemic circulation is when the oxygen rich blood from the heart is pumped to the rest of the body. The body’s cells absorb the oxygen and deposit their waste, carbon dioxide, into the blood and the process starts over again. QuickTime™ and a TIFF (Uncompressed) decompressor are needed to see this picture. Circulatory System Blood enters the heart from the left and right atria. From the atria it flows into the left and right ventricles. Then it leaves the heart. Valves in the heart keep blood flowing in one direction. QuickTime™ and a TIFF (Uncompressed) decompressor are needed to see this picture. Circulatory System Oxygen rich blood leaves from the left side of the heart. The blood then flows from the main blood vessel called the aorta. First, the blood flows through arteries, which are large vessels that carry oxygen rich blood to the rest of the body. QuickTime™ and a TIFF (Uncompressed) decompressor are needed to see this picture. Circulatory System Second, the blood flows through the smallest blood vessels called capillaries. This is where the oxygen is actually distributed to the rest of the cells in the body. And lastly, after the oxygen rich blood is converted to oxygen poor blood, it flows back to the heart through veins. Muscle contractions often help the flow of blood back to the heart. QuickTime™ and a TIFF (Uncompressed) decompressor are needed to see this picture. Vein capillaries artery Circulatory System The oxygen poor blood from the rest of the body, is pumped to the lungs, where a process takes place that removes carbon dioxide, and adds oxygen to the blood. QuickTime™ and a TIFF (Uncompressed) decompressor are needed to see this picture. The circulatory system works with the respiratory system to keep a continuous supply of oxygen to the body. Respiratory System The function of the respiratory system is to remove carbon dioxide and add oxygen to the blood. It consists of the nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, and lungs. QuickTime™ and a TIFF (Uncompressed) decompressor are needed to see this picture. Meets standards: a Respiratory System As you take a breath, the air passes through the pharynx, also known throat. The air then moves through the trachea, also known as the windpipe. QuickTime™ and a TIFF (Uncompressed) decompressor are needed to see this picture. Large dust particles get trapped in the hairs in the nose and other particles are trapped in the mucus. Cilia help push the particles away from the lungs. Respiratory System In the larynx, there are two elastic pieces of tissue called the vocal cords. When these tissues are pulled tight and air rushes past them, they vibrate and make noise. QuickTime™ and a TIFF (Uncompressed) decompressor are needed to see this picture. This allows humans to talk and make vocal noises. Respiratory System After air passes through the trachea is goes into the bronchi, which lead to the lungs. These bronchi then branch out into smaller forms called bronchioles. QuickTime™ and a TIFF (Uncompressed) decompressor are needed to see this picture. On the ends of bronchioles are alveoli. Tiny capillaries are attached to the 350 million alveoli. This is where the gas exchange in blood takes place. Respiratory System As air is taken into the alveoli, the oxygen diffuses across the thin membranes into the blood, and carbon dioxide diffuses out. QuickTime™ and a TIFF (Uncompressed) decompressor are needed to see this picture. Respiratory System Breathing: To inhale a muscle called the diaphragm contracts, which expands the lungs. Because there is a difference in air pressure, air will then rush into the lungs. To exhale the diaphragm relaxes and the air in the lungs is squeeze out. Breathing is partly voluntary and partly involuntary. Cells in the brain monitor the amount of carbon dioxide in the blood. If levels get to high, the brain sends impulses that force you to breath. QuickTime™ and a TIFF (Uncompressed) decompressor are needed to see this picture. Digestive System The job of the digestive system is to break down food particles in particles that are easier for the cells to use. It includes the mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, salivary glands, the pancreas, and the liver. Meets standards: f QuickTime™ and a TIFF (Uncompressed) decompressor are needed to see this picture. Digestive System The digestive system starts in the mouth. The teeth crush and tear food into mush which saliva contains enzymes that break down the food particles into smaller particles. The next part is the esophagus. QuickTime™ and a TIFF (Uncompressed) decompressor are needed to see this picture. Digestive System Food moves down the esophagus by peristalsis. Peristalsis is when smooth muscles surrounding the esophagus contracts to move the clump of food, called a bolus, toward the stomach. QuickTime™ and a TIFF (Uncompressed) decompressor are needed to see this picture. Digestive System In the stomach, the bolus is further digested by chemical digestion, which is the process of breaking down food by using enzymes. The stomach also contracts to help break down food with mechanical digestion, which is the process of breaking down food with physical means. The partially digested food is now called chyme. QuickTime™ and a TIFF (Uncompressed) decompressor are needed to see this picture. Digestive System After the stomach, food is pushed through the pyloric valve. As food passes through the duodenum, the chyme is mixed with enzymes from the liver, pancreas, and the lining of the duodenum. The pancreas does two things. It produces enzymes that break down carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids. It also produces a base that neutralizes the stomach acid so it does not destroy enzymes. QuickTime™ and a TIFF (Uncompressed) decompressor are needed to see this picture. Digestive System The liver produces bile that is a mixture of lipids and salts that separates the fat in food so that enzymes can break them down. QuickTime™ and a TIFF (Uncompressed) decompressor are needed to see this picture. After this process, the food passes through the small intestine. Digestive System In the small intestine, thousands of villi line the surface. These villi are covered in microvilli. Muscle contractions in the small intestine move the chyme against these surfaces and many nutrients are absorbed. QuickTime™ and a TIFF (Uncompressed) decompressor are needed to see this picture. The chyme then moves to the large intestine. Digestive System The chyme has basically no nutrients at this point. All that is left is water, and indigestible substances. Bacteria that live in the large intestine use some of the substances in the chyme to produce beneficial substances such as vitamin K. QuickTime™ and a TIFF (Uncompressed) decompressor are needed to see this picture. After this whole process, the food then leaves the body. The system that is involved in removing the food is the excretory system. Excretory System The excretory system is made up of the skin, lungs, kidney, and associated organs. The kidney filters blood and removes wastes such as urea and excess water. These wastes move through the ureter to the urinary bladder. Meets Standards: a, g QuickTime™ and a TIFF (Uncompressed) decompressor are needed to see this picture. Excretory System The inside of a kidney is called the renal medulla and the outer part of the kidney is called the renal cortex. The work of a kidney takes place inside individual nephrons. The first step of filtering the blood is filtration. In filtration the blood flows into the glomerulus, which is inside the Bowman’s capsule. The blood is under pressure, so some fluid filters out into the bowman’s capsule. This waste is called filtrate. QuickTime™ and a TIFF (Uncompressed) decompressor are needed to see this picture. Excretory System After filtration, nutrients such as amino acids and glucose are reabsorbed by active transport. This is called reabsorption. The water is also reabsorbed by osmosis. The capillaries in the nephrons secrete other minerals into the filtrate. After secretion, the urine is concentrated in the loop of Henle. Urine is stored in the urinary bladder and release from the body through a tube called the urethra. QuickTime™ and a TIFF (Uncompressed) decompressor are needed to see this picture. Excretory System The kidney controls the water content of blood, maintains the pH of the blood, and removes waste from the blood. The activities of the kidney are controlled by what is necessary for homeostasis. For example, if the water level in the blood were to rise, the kidney would remove some water so the cells would not swell with water. QuickTime™ and a TIFF (Uncompressed) decompressor are needed to see this picture. Endocrine System The endocrine system is comprised of glands that give off their products into the bloodstream. These products give messages to the rest of the body. These products are called hormones. Endocrine glands release their hormones directly into the bloodstream. QuickTime™ and a TIFF (Uncompressed) decompressor are needed to see this picture. Meets Standards: c, i Endocrine System Feedback loops in the endocrine system help maintain homeostasis. For example, if the thyroid gland wasn’t secreting enough thyroxine the hypothalamus and anterior pituitary glands would sense this. The hypothalamus would secrete a thyroid-releasing hormone, which would cause the anterior gland to secrete a thyroid-stimulating hormone, which would then cause the thyroid gland to produce more thyroxine. QuickTime™ and a TIFF (Uncompressed) decompressor are needed to see this picture. Endocrine System When you exercise, you lose water as sweat. To keep from losing too much water, they hypothalamus monitors the concentration of dissolved minerals in the blood. When the concentration gets too high is secretes a hormone that signals the pituitary gland to secrete a hormone called antidiuretic hormone. This hormone tells the kidney to slow down the excretion of water. It also gives the sensation of thirst. hypothalamus QuickTime™ and a TIFF (Uncompressed) decompressor are needed to see this picture. Endocrine System The pituitary gland secretes nine different hormones that control body functions and actions of many endocrine glands. The hypothalamus controls the secretion of the pituitary gland. The thyroid gland regulates the body’s metabolism. The parathyroid glands maintain the proper amount of blood calcium levels. The adrenal glands help the body deal with stress. The reproductive glands secrete sex hormones and produce gametes. QuickTime™ and a TIFF (Uncompressed) decompressor are needed to see this picture. Reproductive System The male structures of the reproductive system are the testes, the epididymis, the vas deferens, the urethra, and the penis. These structures collaborate to produce and deliver sperm. Sperm are produced in the seminiferous tubules, located in the testes, through meiosis. The sperm then move through the epididymis and then through the vas deferens. QuickTime™ and a TIFF (Uncompressed) decompressor The vas deferens eventually lead to are needed to see this picture. the urethra and exit the body through the penis. Glands that line the reproductive tract secrete fluid that make up the seminal fluid. The sperm and semenial fluid make up the semen. Reproductive System The female reproductive system is comprised of the ovaries, the Fallopian tubes, the uterus, and the vagina. The female gametes are produced in the ovaries. The ovules are released during ovulation and move through the Fallopian tubes where they can be fertilized. The egg then moves into the uterus. If the egg is fertilized the embryo is nourished in the uterus. If it is not fertilized, the egg passes out of the body during menstruation. QuickTime™ and a TIFF (Uncompressed) decompressor are needed to see this picture. Reproductive System If the egg is fertilized, it begins to divide into more cells while in the Fallopian tube. The blastocyst then implants itself on the uterine lining. Eventually the placenta forms, which connects the mother to the baby. QuickTime™ and a TIFF (Uncompressed) decompressor are needed to see this picture. Reproductive System After about nine months after fertilization the fetus will be ready for birth. As the baby leaves the vagina, the rest of the baby’s body systems kick in and the baby begins to live independently. QuickTime™ and a TIFF (Uncompressed) decompressor are needed to see this picture. Immune System The skin is called the first line of defense because it is the first thing pathogens must get past to infect the body. Most pathogens cannot get through the skin. Pathogens get in through cuts or injuries. When pathogens enter, white blood cells leak from capillaries near the wound and engulf and destroy the bacteria. These white blood cells are called phagocytes. The body may also raise the temperature in the hopes of “cooking” the bacteria to death. This is called a fever. Meets Immune Response Standards: a, b, c, d, e, f QuickTime™ and a TIFF (Uncompressed) decompressor are needed to see this picture. Immune System To fight off and kill specific bacteria and viruses, antibodies are used. A type of white blood cell called B Lymphocytes produce antibodies. Antibodies attach to viruses and form a clump of viruses and antibodies, which then signals phagocytes to engulf and destroy the virus. Antibodies can also mark viruses to be destroyed by phagocytes or white blood cells. T lymphocytes often help B cells produce antibodies. T cells can also fight antigen carrying cells directly. Some T cells turn into killer T cells which destroy the membrane of infected cells. The infected cells then die. QuickTime™ and a TIFF (Uncompressed) decompressor are needed to see this picture. Immune System As an artificial way of making the body produce antibodies for a specific virus or pathogen, vaccinations are used. Vaccinations are small amounts of weakened and mild form of a pathogen that are injected to produce immunity. Since the pathogen is weak, the body is able to create antibodies and destroy it easily. After a vaccination, the body will have produced antibodies for that certain pathogen and will be ready if it ever gets infected with that same pathogen again. QuickTime™ and a TIFF (Uncompressed) decompressor are needed to see this picture. Immune System A disease where the immune system is weakened and cannot effectively fight disease is AIDS or Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome. Diseases that weaken the immune system do so by attacking cells like T cells. Because those cells are being damaged the immune system cannot fight off the virus or any other viruses very well. Many people in Africa have AIDS QuickTime™ and a TIFF (Uncompressed) decompressor are needed to see this picture. Bibliography Miller, R. Kenneth and Joseph S. Levine. Biology. New Jersey: Pearson Education, 2002