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Physiology
By: Forrest Hansen
http://picturethis.pnl.gov/picturet.nsf/All/6_.RKU?opendocument
http://pami.uwaterloo.ca/~gsdharwa/b_c_i/eeg_signal.htm
Dendrites
Nervous System
The main cell associated with the nervous
system is the neuron. The neuron’s parts
are shown below.
Axon
Nucleus
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Cell body
Meets Standards: b, c, d, and e
Myelin Sheaths
Nodes
Axon Terminals
Nervous System
Neurons carry electrical signals called impulses.
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Neurons carry impulses from reactions in the environment
or transmit messages to the rest of the body from the brain.
Nervous System
There are three types of neurons: Motor neurons, sensory neurons, and
interneurons.
Sensory neurons carry their impulses from the sense organs, such as the eye, to the
spinal cord and brain.
Motor neurons carry impulses from the brain and spinal cord to the rest of the
body, such as the muscles and glands.
Interneurons connect the sensory and motor neurons.
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Nervous System
To activate an impulse in a neuron, a stimulus is needed.
When a neuron is stimulated, the impulse travels along the axon
and into the axon terminals.
stimulus
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Nervous System
Neurons can transfer their impulse signal to other neurons or to other
cells to tell them to do a certain activity such as make a muscle
contract.
First Neuron
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Second Neuron
Nervous System
When impulses reach the axon terminals they release neurotransmitters.
Serotonin is a neurotransmitters. These neurotransmitters diffuse across a
gap between the two cell and land on the other cell’s receptors. This
triggers an impulse in the other neuron, thus continuing the impulse.
Neurotransmitters can also tell other cells to start doing something.
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Nervous System
When a neuron starts an impulse
from a stimulus from the
environment, the impulse goes
through a network of neurons
into the spinal cord and then into
the brain for processing.
To brain
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To spinal cord
In the case of reflexes, the
impulse does not travel to the
brain and goes directly to the
Stimulus
spinal cord to make the
rections faster.
http://diabetes.niddk.nih.gov/dm/pubs/complications_nerves/index.htm
Nervous System
When the brain wants to
send commands to the
organs it starts the initial
impulse and that impulse
travels along a network
of neurons to the organ
that is being manipulated.
Initial
impulse
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Sent to
other
organs
Skeletal System
The role of the skeletal system is
to provide the body with support,
protect internal organs, provide
movement, store minerals, and
provide a place for blood cell
formation
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Skeletal System
The skeletal system is
made up of bones. Bones
are living tissue that are
made up of protein fibers
and living cells that are
surrounded by calcium
salts.
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Skeletal System
The periosteum is a layer of connective tissue that surrounds the
bones.
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The outer layer of bones is made up of compact bone. In this
compact bone, there are Haversian canals which contain blood
vessels and nerves.
Skeletal System
The innermost part of the bone is the spongy bone.
Cavities inside bones
hold bone marrow. The
two types of bone
marrow are yellow and
red. The yellow bone
marrow contains fat, and
the red bone marrow
makes red blood cells,
some white blood cells,
and platelets.
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Skeletal System
Because our bones
don’t stay in one place
and we are able to
move our arms and
legs, joints are
necessary.
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Joints allow bones to move in different directions without damaging
eachother.
Skeletal System
The three types of joints are:
Fixed joint
Immovable Joints: allow no
movement, bones are interlocked
and held together by connective
tissue.
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Example: joints in the
skull.
Skeletal System
Slightly Movable Joints:
joints that allow a small amount of
movement.
Example: joints in
vertebrae.
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Skeletal System
Freely Movable Joints:
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joints that can move in more than
one direction.
Sub-categories: Ball-andsocket joint in shoulder, hinge
joint in elbow, pivot joint in
elbow, and saddle joint in
hand.
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Muscular System
The muscular system
is comprised of all the
muscle tissue in the
body.
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Meets Standards: h
Muscular System
The three types of
muscle tissue are:
Smooth Muscle: not
under voluntary control,
found in stomach, blood
vessels, and small and
large intestines.
Cardiac Muscle: only found
in the heart, involuntary.
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Skeletal Muscle: attached to
bones. Used for voluntary
actions such as arm movement.
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Muscular System
Myofibrils make up the muscle fibers. These fibers are
comprised of actin and myosin. These fibers are separated into
sections by z-discs. The sarcomere is the center of these
seperated units.
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Muscular System
For a muscle to contract, the myosin must attach to the actin,
forming cross-bridges, and pull the actin fibers together. This is
called the sliding filament model of muscle contraction.
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Muscular System
This process requires energy,
which comes in the form of
ATP, or Adenosine
Triphosphate.
ATP is a renewable source of
energy that every cell in the
body uses.
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Muscular System
The brain controls the contractions of muscles by using the motor
neurons in the nervous system. Where motor neurons meet, it is called
a neuromuscular junction.
1. Axon
2. Axon terminals
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3. Muscle cell
4. Myofibril
5
5. Neuromuscular Junction
In this junction a type of neurotransmitter called acetylcholine is
released which transfers the impulse to the muscle cell.
Muscular System
These impulses in
the muscle cells
cause calcium ions
(Ca2+) to be released.
These calcium ions
cause the reactions
between myosin and
actin.
Neuromuscular
Junction
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When there is no more acetylcholine, the muscle cell pumps the
calium ions back into storage and the contraction stops.
Muscular System
Tendons connect
muscles to the
bones in the
skeletal system.
Relaxed
Contracted
Skeletal muscles tend
to work in pairs. If
one muscle contracts
and the other relaxes
the joint will bend in
one direction.
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Integumentary System
The integumentary system
is made up of the skin, hair,
nails, and certain glands.
The integumentary system is
a barrier against infection
and injury, helps regulate
body temperature, removes
wastes, and provides
protection against UV rays
from the sun.
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Integumentary System
The epidermis the the outer layer of skin. The outer layer of the
epidermis is made up of dead cells and the inner layer is made
up of living cells.
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Integumentary System
Melanocytes are cells that produce melanin in
the epidermis. This causes the brown pigment
in skin. The dermis is the inner layer of the
skin.
Blood vessels in the dermis constrict in
cold times to reduce heat loss.
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The sebaceous glands produce an oily
substance that keeps the skin waterproof
and flexible.
Sweat glands produce sweat in hot times.
The water in sweat evaporates and reduces
heat.
Integumentary System
Hair and nails are mostly made up of keratin.
Hair:
•Covers and protects head from ultraviolet light from the sun
•In nostrils, eyelashes, and ear canals prevents foreign
particles from entering the body.
hair
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Integumentary System
Nails:
•Protect tips of fingers and toes
•Grow from the nail root located
near tips of fingers and toes
•Grow four times as fast on the
fingers than the toes
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Circulatory System
The heart, lungs, blood vessels, and
the blood are all part of the
circulatory system.
The heart is the organ that
pumps the blood throughout
the body. The muscle in the
heart is called myocardium.
The upper chamber, which
receives the blood is called
the atrium, and the lower
chamber is called the
ventricle, which pumps the
blood out to the body.
Meets Standards: a, g
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Circulatory System
In pulmonary circulation, the oxygen poor blood is pumped
to the lungs, the carbon dioxide is deposited from the blood,
and oxygen is absorbed into the blood, making it oxygen
rich again.
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Circulatory System
The systemic circulation is when the
oxygen rich blood from the heart is
pumped to the rest of the body. The
body’s cells absorb the oxygen and
deposit their waste, carbon dioxide,
into the blood and the process starts
over again.
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Circulatory System
Blood enters the heart from the left and right atria. From the
atria it flows into the left and right ventricles. Then it leaves the
heart. Valves in the heart keep blood flowing in one direction.
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Circulatory System
Oxygen rich blood
leaves from the left side
of the heart. The blood
then flows from the main
blood vessel called the
aorta.
First, the blood flows
through arteries, which are
large vessels that carry
oxygen rich blood to the rest
of the body.
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Circulatory System
Second, the blood flows through
the smallest blood vessels called
capillaries. This is where the
oxygen is actually distributed to
the rest of the cells in the body.
And lastly, after the oxygen rich
blood is converted to oxygen
poor blood, it flows back to the
heart through veins. Muscle
contractions often help the flow
of blood back to the heart.
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Vein
capillaries
artery
Circulatory System
The oxygen poor blood from the rest of the body, is pumped to
the lungs, where a process takes place that removes carbon
dioxide, and adds oxygen to the blood.
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The circulatory system works with the respiratory system to
keep a continuous supply of oxygen to the body.
Respiratory System
The function of the respiratory system is to remove carbon dioxide
and add oxygen to the blood. It consists of the nose, pharynx,
larynx, trachea, bronchi, and lungs.
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Meets standards: a
Respiratory System
As you take a breath, the air passes through the pharynx, also
known throat. The air then moves through the trachea, also
known as the windpipe.
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Large dust particles get trapped in the hairs in the nose and other
particles are trapped in the mucus. Cilia help push the particles
away from the lungs.
Respiratory System
In the larynx, there are two elastic pieces of tissue called the vocal
cords. When these tissues are pulled tight and air rushes past them,
they vibrate and make noise.
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This allows humans to talk and make vocal noises.
Respiratory System
After air passes through the
trachea is goes into the bronchi,
which lead to the lungs. These
bronchi then branch out into
smaller forms called bronchioles.
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On the ends of bronchioles are alveoli. Tiny capillaries are
attached to the 350 million alveoli. This is where the gas exchange
in blood takes place.
Respiratory System
As air is taken into the alveoli, the oxygen diffuses across the thin
membranes into the blood, and carbon dioxide diffuses out.
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Respiratory System
Breathing: To inhale a muscle called the diaphragm contracts,
which expands the lungs. Because there is a difference in air
pressure, air will then rush into the lungs. To exhale the
diaphragm relaxes and the air in the lungs is squeeze out.
Breathing is partly voluntary and
partly involuntary. Cells in the
brain monitor the amount of
carbon dioxide in the blood. If
levels get to high, the brain sends
impulses that force you to breath.
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Digestive System
The job of the digestive
system is to break down
food particles in particles
that are easier for the cells
to use. It includes the
mouth, pharynx,
esophagus, stomach,
small intestine, large
intestine, salivary glands,
the pancreas, and the
liver.
Meets standards: f
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Digestive System
The digestive system starts in the mouth. The teeth crush and tear
food into mush which saliva contains enzymes that break down
the food particles into smaller particles. The next part is the
esophagus.
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Digestive System
Food moves down the esophagus by peristalsis. Peristalsis is
when smooth muscles surrounding the esophagus contracts to
move the clump of food, called a bolus, toward the stomach.
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Digestive System
In the stomach, the bolus is further digested by chemical
digestion, which is the process of breaking down food by using
enzymes.
The stomach also contracts to
help break down food with
mechanical digestion, which is
the process of breaking down
food with physical means. The
partially digested food is now
called chyme.
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Digestive System
After the stomach, food is pushed through the pyloric valve. As
food passes through the duodenum, the chyme is mixed with
enzymes from the liver, pancreas, and the lining of the duodenum.
The pancreas does two things. It
produces enzymes that break
down carbohydrates, proteins,
lipids, and nucleic acids. It also
produces a base that neutralizes
the stomach acid so it does not
destroy enzymes.
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Digestive System
The liver produces bile that is a mixture of lipids and salts that
separates the fat in food so that enzymes can break them down.
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After this process, the food passes
through the small intestine.
Digestive System
In the small intestine, thousands of villi line the surface. These
villi are covered in microvilli. Muscle contractions in the small
intestine move the chyme against these surfaces and many
nutrients are absorbed.
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The chyme then moves to the large intestine.
Digestive System
The chyme has basically no nutrients at this point. All that is
left is water, and indigestible substances. Bacteria that live in
the large intestine use some of the substances in the chyme to
produce beneficial substances such as vitamin K.
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After this whole process, the food then leaves the body.
The system that is involved in removing the food is the
excretory system.
Excretory System
The excretory system is made
up of the skin, lungs, kidney,
and associated organs.
The kidney filters blood
and removes wastes such
as urea and excess water.
These wastes move
through the ureter to the
urinary bladder.
Meets Standards: a, g
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Excretory System
The inside of a kidney is called the renal medulla and the outer
part of the kidney is called the renal cortex.
The work of a kidney takes
place inside individual
nephrons. The first step of
filtering the blood is filtration.
In filtration the blood flows
into the glomerulus, which is
inside the Bowman’s capsule.
The blood is under pressure, so
some fluid filters out into the
bowman’s capsule. This waste
is called filtrate.
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Excretory System
After filtration, nutrients such as amino acids and glucose are
reabsorbed by active transport. This is called reabsorption. The
water is also reabsorbed by osmosis.
The capillaries in the nephrons
secrete other minerals into the
filtrate. After secretion, the
urine is concentrated in the loop
of Henle. Urine is stored in the
urinary bladder and release
from the body through a tube
called the urethra.
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Excretory System
The kidney controls the water content of blood, maintains the
pH of the blood, and removes waste from the blood. The
activities of the kidney are controlled by what is necessary for
homeostasis. For example, if the water level in the blood were
to rise, the kidney would remove some water so the cells
would not swell with water.
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Endocrine System
The endocrine system is comprised of glands that give off their
products into the bloodstream. These products give messages to
the rest of the body. These products are called hormones.
Endocrine glands release their hormones directly into the
bloodstream.
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Meets Standards: c, i
Endocrine System
Feedback loops in the endocrine
system help maintain homeostasis.
For example, if the thyroid gland
wasn’t secreting enough thyroxine
the hypothalamus and anterior
pituitary glands would sense this.
The hypothalamus would secrete a
thyroid-releasing hormone, which
would cause the anterior gland to
secrete a thyroid-stimulating
hormone, which would then cause
the thyroid gland to produce more
thyroxine.
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Endocrine System
When you exercise, you lose water as sweat. To keep from
losing too much water, they hypothalamus monitors the
concentration of dissolved minerals in the blood. When the
concentration gets too high is secretes a hormone that signals
the pituitary gland to secrete a hormone called antidiuretic
hormone. This hormone tells the kidney to slow down the
excretion of water. It also gives the sensation of thirst.
hypothalamus
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Endocrine System
The pituitary gland secretes nine different hormones that control
body functions and actions of many endocrine glands.
The hypothalamus controls the secretion of the pituitary gland.
The thyroid gland regulates the body’s metabolism.
The parathyroid glands maintain the proper amount of blood
calcium levels.
The adrenal glands help the
body deal with stress.
The reproductive glands
secrete sex hormones and
produce gametes.
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Reproductive System
The male structures of the reproductive system are the testes, the
epididymis, the vas deferens, the urethra, and the penis. These
structures collaborate to produce and deliver sperm.
Sperm are produced in the
seminiferous tubules, located in the
testes, through meiosis. The sperm
then move through the epididymis
and then through the vas deferens.
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the urethra and exit the body through
the penis. Glands that line the
reproductive tract secrete fluid that
make up the seminal fluid. The sperm
and semenial fluid make up the
semen.
Reproductive System
The female reproductive system is comprised of the ovaries, the
Fallopian tubes, the uterus, and the vagina.
The female gametes are produced
in the ovaries. The ovules are
released during ovulation and
move through the Fallopian tubes
where they can be fertilized. The
egg then moves into the uterus. If
the egg is fertilized the embryo is
nourished in the uterus. If it is not
fertilized, the egg passes out of
the body during menstruation.
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Reproductive System
If the egg is fertilized, it
begins to divide into more
cells while in the Fallopian
tube. The blastocyst then
implants itself on the uterine
lining. Eventually the placenta
forms, which connects the
mother to the baby.
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Reproductive System
After about nine months after fertilization the fetus will be
ready for birth. As the baby leaves the vagina, the rest of the
baby’s body systems kick in and the baby begins to live
independently.
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Immune System
The skin is called the first line of defense because it is the first thing
pathogens must get past to infect the body. Most pathogens cannot
get through the skin. Pathogens get in through cuts or injuries.
When pathogens enter, white blood
cells leak from capillaries near the
wound and engulf and destroy the
bacteria. These white blood cells are
called phagocytes. The body may also
raise the temperature in the hopes of
“cooking” the bacteria to death. This
is called a fever.
Meets Immune Response Standards: a, b, c, d, e, f
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Immune System
To fight off and kill specific bacteria and viruses, antibodies are
used. A type of white blood cell called B Lymphocytes produce
antibodies. Antibodies attach to viruses and form a clump of viruses
and antibodies, which then signals phagocytes to engulf and destroy
the virus.
Antibodies can also mark viruses to be destroyed by phagocytes or
white blood cells.
T lymphocytes often help B cells
produce antibodies. T cells can also
fight antigen carrying cells directly.
Some T cells turn into killer T cells
which destroy the membrane of
infected cells. The infected cells then
die.
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Immune System
As an artificial way of making the body produce antibodies for a
specific virus or pathogen, vaccinations are used. Vaccinations
are small amounts of weakened and mild form of a pathogen
that are injected to produce immunity. Since the pathogen is
weak, the body is able to create antibodies and destroy it easily.
After a vaccination, the body will have produced antibodies for
that certain pathogen and will be ready if it ever gets infected
with that same pathogen again.
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Immune System
A disease where the immune system is weakened and cannot
effectively fight disease is AIDS or Acquired Immune Deficiency
Syndrome. Diseases that weaken the immune system do so by
attacking cells like T cells. Because those cells are being damaged
the immune system cannot fight off the virus or any other viruses
very well.
Many people in Africa
have AIDS
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Bibliography
Miller, R. Kenneth and Joseph S. Levine. Biology. New
Jersey: Pearson Education, 2002