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Human Physiology By Sydney Hollingshead Biology Mr. Thiel 7 period 4/23/07 Skeletal Function Supports body Protection for organs Allows wide range of motion Place for muscles to attatch Stores mineral reserves Site for blood cell formation Structures Bone Stiff, brittle, dense outer and soft inner Has blood cells and nerves running through Cartilage Flexible, supportive connective tissue - cushions bones Ligaments Tough connective tissue - hold bones together Tendon Tough connective tissue - holds skeletal muscles to bones Marrow Inside bone cavities in center, soft tissue, yellow + red Process Strong bones hold up body and deflect damage to organs Muscles attatch w/ tendons Bones store calcium When excess calcium in body, bones take it out of blood, grow or store When not enough, body needs more, takes out of bones, bones become weaker, more brittle (Osteoperosis) Joints provide motion, versus shell or exoskeleton which limits motion Red marrow produces blood cells Circulatory Structures Heart Blood vessels Blood Function Brings oxygen, nutrients, hormones to cells Fights infection Regulates body temperature Process Heart Pumps blood throughout the body Four chambers allows two seperate pathways for blood blood with different amounts of oxygen and carbon dioxide won’t mix together,oxygenated blood is sent to muscles and CO2 blood sent to lungs Arteries Large vessels, carry blood to tissues, oxygen-rich blood Thick walls, can expand under pressure Smooth muscle in arteries control diameter Viens, cappilaries, blood cells, platelets, Process continued Capillaries Smallest blood vessels Closest to cells of body, passes nutrients, oxygen, absorbs CO2 and other waste, taken back to heart and into lungs to be disposed of(standard 1a) Thin walls (one cell thick) help nutrients pass through Veins Bring blood away from body, back to heart One-way valves help contain blood against gravity Skeletal muscles squeeze veins to push blood back to heart Process continued Blood Cells Red blood cells (most common) transport oxygen Contain hemoglobin to bind to oxygen Produced in red marrow, destroyed in Liver and Spleen Doughnut shape, fill with hemoglobin and force out organelles White Blood Cells attack foreign substances and organisms Don’t have hemoglobin Made in red marrow, body can drastically increase number of white blood cells when fighting an infection Also called phagocytes(eating cells), engulf and digest foreign cells (i.e. cancer cells, allergies, transplanted organs) Platelets - fragments of marrow enclose in cell membrane, released into bloodstream Aids in blood clotting Nervous Structures Brain Spinal Cord Peripheral Nerves Neurons, impulses, synapses Function Coordinates body’s response to changes in internal + external environments Utilizes feedback loops to achieve homeostasis Ex. – Body temperature When temp. drops, involuntary actions occur – appendages are drawn into the body, goosebumps (make “fur” stand up and trap air against body for insulation), shivering Standard 1c When temp. increases, brain tells body to slow down, stop movement, lethargy occurs, so body won’t overheat Ex. – Bones draw calcium from bloodstream or release back into bloodstream when needed Process Carries messages to body from brain Brain = control center Cerebrum = voluntary actions Cerebellum = coordinates + balances motion Brain Stem = connects brain + spinal cord, regulate information flow, blood pressure, heart rate, breathing, swallowing Spinal Cord = major telephone line Main link from brain to rest of body Controls reflexes Process continued Peripheral nerves Standard 1b Sensory(senses) Standard 1c Alert the brain to surroundings Pain in sensory receptors send message to central nervous system and back to motor division, causing movement of muscles to remove the body from pain source Motor(movement) division Motor = somatic and autonomic Somatic = conscious movement, some reflexes Autonomic = involuntary(heartbeat, digestion) Sympathetic and parasympathetic create a feedback loop Process continued Neurons Transmit electrochemical impulses(messages) Sensory neurons send impulses from sensory organs to the brain/spinal cord Motor neurons send impulses from brain/spinal cord to muscles and glands Interneurons carry impulses between sensory and motor neurons Standard 1d Standard 1e Muscular Structures Skeletal Muscle Smooth Muscle Cardiac Muscle Function Produces voluntary movement w/ help of skeletal system Helps circulate blood Helps move food through digestive system Process Muscles produce contraction through chemical processes Skeletal muscles control most voluntary movement Skeletal muscles attatch to bones by tendons, and pull on bones like levers Joint = fulcrum Muscle = force Most muscles work in opposing pairs Muscle movement helps push oxygen-depleted blood away from limbs and back to heart against gravity(with prolonged rest, muscles become “tingly”, due to lack of new, oxygenated blood) Muscular Contraction Nerve impulse Ca+ released in Endoplasmic Reticulum Ca+ activates use of ATP by Myosin Myosin uses ATP to attach to actin Filaments and pull together Standard 1h Digestive Structures Mouth Pharynx Esophagus Stomach Small/large intestines Function Converts foods into simpler molecules that can be used by the cells of the body Absorbs food Process Consumption is necessary – must obtain energy to operate chemical reactions in the body Mouth begins mechanical digestion by breaking down food into fine paste – molecules are split apart by force Digestive enzymes(amylase) in saliva begin chemical digestion – molecules themselves are broken down (standard 1f) Pharnyx = passageway to esophagus Esophagus = uses muscles to push chewed food into stomach Process continued Stomach Stomach acid(hydrochloric), makes stomach contents acidic Triggers pepsin enzyme, pepsin+hydrochloric acid begins protein digestion (standard 1f) Pancreas/Liver Pancreas produces more enzymes(lipases, proteases, nucleases) and neutralizes stomach acid so these enzyme’s won’t be destroyed Liver produces bile(fluid containing lipids and salts), dissolves pockets of fat in fatty foods so enzymes can better break down fat molecules (standard 1f, 1g) Process continued Small Intestine Most chemical digestion is complete Small intestine absorbs nutrients through villi Large Intestine Food is mostly nutrient-free Removes water from indigestible material left Reproductive Structures Testes Epididymis Vas deferens Urethra Penis Ovaries Fallopian Tubes Uterus Vagina Function Produces reproductive cells (females) nurtures, protects developing embryo Process Males Sperm are produced in testes Cells in testes undergo meiosis to form haploid structure Sperm move into epididymis to fully mature and be stored Move to vas deferens, into urethra, then to penis Sperm are released through ejaculation(regulated by autonomic nervous system) Process continued Female Begins in ovaries, where follicles(immature egg) are contained Under influence of FSH and estrogen, follicle gets larger and undergoes meiosis Ovulation occurs – follicle breaks open and egg is released into a Fallopian tube(can be fertilized here) After a few days, enters uterus Uterine lining develops, and blood supply increases to receive the egg Process continued If egg was fertilized, division begins After several divisions, egg(now called blastocyst) implants into uterine lining Development begins – after thousands of divisions, cells begin to specialize and form systems, now called embryo Placenta is formed in uterus – connects mother and embryo, provides nutrition and waste removal If egg was not fertilized, menstruation begins Uterine lining breaks down, discharged, along with blood and egg, through vagina Endocrine Structures Hypothalamus Pituitary Thyroid Parathyroids Adrenals Pancreas Ovaries testes Function Controls: growth development metabolism reproduction Process By use of hormones released into bloodstream from glands throughout the body, messages are broadcast throughout the body and stimulate certain events Internal Feedback Mechanisms Ex. When hypothalamus senses low levels of thyroxine in blood, sends a hormone into bloodstream that only target cells in pituitary can receive, which produces another hormone sent to the thyroid gland which produces thyroxine. Presence of thyroxine in blood inhibits production of initial hormone from hypothalamus Standard 1i Process continued Feedback loop Blood Sugar When gets high, pancreas releases insulin to make cell walls more permeable to sugar, cells take in excess sugar When gets low, liver releases glucagon, stored sugar Standard 1c Excretory Systems Skin Lungs Kidneys Ureters Urinary bladder Urethra Function Eliminates waste products of metabolism from body Maintains homeostasis Process Blood passes through the kidney and waste products are trapped and excreted as urine Many nutrients are returned to the blood after filtration through reabsorption Regulatory hormones are released due to the composition of the blood Ex. When you eat salty food, kidney will respond by letting less salt return to the blood through reabsorption (standard 1g) Process continued Skin excretes water, salts, and urea through sweat Lungs excrete carbon dioxide Blood returns carbon dioxide from body/heart through capillaries in lungs, receive oxygen and return to heart/body (standard 1a) Lymphatic Systems White blood cells Thymus Spleen Lymph nodes Lymph vessels Function Helps protect body from disease Collects fluid lost from blood vessels and returns fluid to circulatory system Process White blood cells attack foreign substances/organisms Network of vessels collect lymph(fluid lost by blood) Collects in lymphatic capillaries, slowly move into larger vessels, prevented from backwards flow by valves Returned directly to heart Lymph nodes filter lymph Trap bacteria + disease-causing micro-organisms Become “swollen” with large amounts Nodes also absorb fat and fat-soluble vitamins from intestines and put it directly into blood “Immune System” Skin provides first, nonspecific defense against disease (standard 2a) Dead skin cells are hard to penetrate Oil + sweat create an acidic environment Antibodies destroy pathogens that enter body through wounds or otherwise When attached en masse to an antigen, attract white blood cells to engulf entire mass “Immune System” continued Vaccinations introduce mild forms of a pathogen Stimulates body to create specific antibodies while not being strong enough to harm the human Bacteria V.S. Virus Bacteria reproduce through division Viruses inject their DNA into another cell to reproduce Bacteria are “swallowed” by white blood cells Because Viruses takeover cells native to the body, the immune system does not recognize them as foreign, and they are not attacked Bacteria can be treated through medical immune system boosters and otherwise Viral infections cannot be treated after infection occurs; vaccinations can be given, but viruses mutate and then the vaccination is ineffective “Immune System” continued Phagocytes = white blood cells Consume bacteria + other foreign objects B-lymphocytes Produce antibodies T-lymphocytes Assist and regulate release of antibodies Attack antigen-bearing cells directly Respiratory Structures Nose Pharynx Larynx Trachea Bronchi Bronchioles Lungs Function Provides oxygen needed for cellular respiration Removes excess carbon dioxide from body Processes Air is sucked into mouth/nose Passes through pharynx and into trachea (windpipe) – larynx produces sound Air enters bronchi, then to lungs Bronchi divides into bronchioles, then into dead ends called alveoli Each alveoli surrounded by net of capillaries, where gas exchange takes place Diaphragm Lungs are sealed into sacs, airtight Diaphragm pulls/pushes at bottom of sacs, forces air in or out Chest wounds can puncture airtight sacs and breathing won’t occur Integumentary Systems Skin Hair Nails Sweat/oil glands Function Barrier against infection/injury Regulates body temperature Provides protection against UV radiation from sun Processes Epidermis keeps out bacteria and other outside dangers - waterproof Dermis Blood vessels can narrow/widen to conserve/release heat Sweat removes heat from your body when it evaporates Oil secretions keeps epidermis flexible/waterproof Hair Protects scalp from UV rays, cold insulation Nostril/ear canal/eye hair keeps out dirt Nails Protect end of fingers/toes Bibliography Miller, Kenneth and Joseph Levine. Biology. New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 2002. Thiel, Eric. Biology teacher, Amador Valley High School. Lecture. 17 Apr. 2007. Standards 1a. Students know how the complementary activity of major body systems provides cells with oxygen and nutrients and removes toxic waste products such as carbon dioxide 1b. Students know how the nervous system mediates communication between different parts of the body and the body’s interactions with the environment 1c. Students know how feedback loops in the nervous and endocrine systems regulate conditions in the body. 1d. Student know the functions of the nervous system and the role of neurons in transmitting electrochemical impulses 1e. Students know the roles of sensory neurons, interneurons, and motor neurons in sensation, thought, and response 1f. Students know the individual functions and sites of secretion of digestive enzymes, stomach acid, and bile salts 1g. Students know the homeostatic role of the kidneys in the removal of nitrogeneous wastes and the role of the liver in blood detoxification and glucose balance. 1h. Students know the cellular and molecular basis of muscle contraction, including the roles of actin, myosin, Ca+2, and ATP 1i. Students know how hormones provide internal feedback mechanisms for homeostasis at the cellular level and in whole organisms. Standards cont. 2a. Students know the role of the skin in providing nonspecific defenses against infection 2b. Students know the role of antibodies in the body’s response to infection 2c. Students know how vaccination protects an individual from infectious diseases 2d. Students know there are important differences between bacteria and viruses with respect to their requirements for growth and replication, the body’s primary defenses against bacterial an viral infections, and effective treatments of these infections. 2e. Students know why an individual with a compromised immune system may be unable to fight off and survive infetions by microorganisms that are usually benign 2f. Students know the roles of phagocytes, B-lymphocytes, and T-lympocytes in the immune system