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Chapter 15: Stress, Coping, and Health Chapter Outline 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. What is stress? Responding to stress Coping with stress Stress and health Posttraumatic stress disorder © John Wiley & Sons Canada, Ltd. What Is Stress? Stress—response to a situation that threatens, or appears to threaten, one’s sense of well being Stressor—something that triggers a stress response Two types of stressors Acute stressor—short-term finite stressful situation Studying for finals, competing in a football game Chronic stressor—long-term stressor with no definitive end Poverty, high-pressure job Our appraisal and perception of a situation triggers the emotional state connected to stress © John Wiley & Sons Canada, Ltd. Ways of Experiencing Stress Feeling frustrated—an emotion experienced when something prevents us from reaching a goal Feeling pressure—an expectation or demand that one should act in a certain way Feeling conflict—discomfort due to two or more incompatible goals or impulses Approach-approach conflict—equally desirable options Avoidance-avoidance conflict—equally undesirable options Approach-avoidance conflict—both good and bad in any available choice © John Wiley & Sons Canada, Ltd. Three Types of Conflict © John Wiley & Sons Canada, Ltd. Ways of Experiencing Stress Feeling endangered—Life-threatening situations produce stress © John Wiley & Sons Canada, Ltd. Kinds of Stressors Daily hassles—small, everyday problems that accumulate to become a source of stress—microstressors Bad or rude drivers Cannot find keys or cell phone © John Wiley & Sons Canada, Ltd. Kinds of Stressors Life changes—altered circumstances requiring adjustment Marriage, death, finals, break up, starting university or a new school Social Readjustment Rating Scale (SRRS)—assigns life change units to various events that can occur in one’s life Does not apply equally to all cultures or populations High scores on the SRRS are related to health problems © John Wiley & Sons Canada, Ltd. Kinds of Stressors Traumatic events— unexpected disruptive events Natural disaster, witness or victim to violence Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD)—an anxiety disorder caused by a major traumatic event, characterized by lingering and persistent, frightening thoughts or memories of the event, along with anxiety and depression © John Wiley & Sons Canada, Ltd. Kinds of Stressors Chronic negative situations—continued negative situation Living in a dangerous place, poverty, illness, job stress Sociocultural conditions—challenges associated with minority groups Immigrating, racism, and prejudice Stereotype threat—suspicions, confusion, and resulting vigilance experienced by minority group members as they interact with majority group members Significant stressor for minority group members, but often invisible to those in the majority group © John Wiley & Sons Canada, Ltd. Responding to Stress The fight-or-flight response—during stress, your body makes you feel like you either want to fight or run. How? HPA pathway—hypothalamus, pituitary, adrenal gland Hypothalamus—stimulates nerves in the sympathetic nervous system to stimulate organs to respond Pituitary gland releases ACTH hormone Adrenal glands release stress hormones © John Wiley & Sons Canada, Ltd. Responding to Stress © John Wiley & Sons Canada, Ltd. The Fight-or-Flight Response Under fire—riot police were in extreme danger during the riot following the Vancouver Canuck loss in 2011 © John Wiley & Sons Canada, Ltd. The Tend-and-Befriend Response Some theorists argue that the fight-or-flight response may be a largely male response, and suggest that evolution may have selected a “tend-and-befriend” response to cope with stress in females Regardless of the mechanism, in general females are more likely to have extensive and wellmaintained social networks than are males © John Wiley & Sons Canada, Ltd. The General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS) Three stage response to ongoing stress 1. Alarm 2. Resistance 3. Body’s reaction to initial exposure to stressor (fightor-flight) Body’s attempt to stabilize if stressor continues May result in vulnerability to disease Exhaustion Further exposure to stressor depletes energy and resistance © John Wiley & Sons Canada, Ltd. The General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS) Alarm stage—as the wildfire moved closer to Slave Lake, Alberta, in 2011, residents moved into an alarm mode, struggling to flee the fire as quickly as possible. © John Wiley & Sons Canada, Ltd. Emotional Responses to Stress In addition to bodily arousal, stress triggers emotions and changes mood The greater the amount of stress, the more negative the emotions associated with stress Anxiety, fear, anger, apprehension As stressors subside, mood becomes more positive © John Wiley & Sons Canada, Ltd. Cognitive Responses to Stress Appraisal is key in ability to handle stressful situations Richard Lazarus— cognitive-mediational theory of emotions Primary appraisal— appraisal of stressor (how big a stressor is it) Secondary appraisal— appraisal of resources and one’s ability to deal with stressor © John Wiley & Sons Canada, Ltd. Individual Responses to Stress Autonomic reactivity and stress Differences in intensity of autonomic nervous system (ANS) reaction Example: Individuals consistently displayed either high or low cardiovascular activity in response to stressor Explanatory style and stress Generally optimistic style Generally pessimistic style Social support and stress More social support seems to correlate with less stress Support may increase self-confidence in dealing with stressors Social feedback may alter one’s perception of stressor Presence of others reduces bodily arousal and negative emotions © John Wiley & Sons Canada, Ltd. Individual Responses to Stress Personality and stress Hardy, or stress-resistant personality—welcome challenges, take control, view stressors as growth opportunities Type A personality—style resulting in continual stress Personality traits: competitive, impatient, angry, hostile Type B—experience lower levels of stress Personality traits: more relaxed, less aggressive, less hostile Type C—particularly vulnerable to stress Personality traits: positive attitudes but unable to express or acknowledge negative feelings, tend to turn the anger inward © John Wiley & Sons Canada, Ltd. Coping with Stress Coping—cognitive and behavioural strategies to manage stress Lashing out—psychological or physical Self-defence—defensive, avoidant behaviours to protect oneself from stress Self-indulgence—alcohol, drugs, overeating Constructive strategies Problem-focused coping— efforts aimed at a stressor Emotion-focused coping— changing feelings about the stressor © John Wiley & Sons Canada, Ltd. Stress and Health Strong relationship between stress and health Psychosomatic or psychophysiological Interaction between psychological and biological factors Coronary heart disease • Psychological (e.g., Type A) and biological (e.g., obesity) Life change and illness Life stressors (SRRS) linked to physical illness © John Wiley & Sons Canada, Ltd. Type A Personality and Hostility © John Wiley & Sons Canada, Ltd. Stress and Health Stress and the immune system Psychoneuroimmunology—studies links between stress, the immune system, and health Immune system—organs, tissues, and cells that identify and fight bodily invaders (e.g., viruses, bacteria, cancer cells) Lymphocytes—white blood cells, key in fighting bacterial and viral invaders Biochemical activity Norepinephrine Cortisol Cytokines © John Wiley & Sons Canada, Ltd. Stress and the Common Cold © John Wiley & Sons Canada, Ltd. Behaviour, Personality, and Social Support Behavioural changes in response to stress can affect the immune system Anxiety and/or depression may trigger other behaviours Examples: Smoking, alcohol or drug use, sleep deprivation These behaviours result in slowed immune system Personality traits improve immune system functioning and resilience in dealing with stress Examples: Optimism, constructive coping, and ability to “bounce back” People exhibiting Type C behaviour pattern appear to be more at risk for cancer Social support helps to shield us from the negative effects of stress Examples: Church, family, community © John Wiley & Sons Canada, Ltd. The Benefits of Stress When is stress a good thing? Eustress—optimal stress level Promotes physical and psychological health Inoculation—dealing with small levels of stress to improve functioning in increasingly stressful situations © John Wiley & Sons Canada, Ltd. Stress and Performance © John Wiley & Sons Canada, Ltd. Posttraumatic Stress Disorder PTSD—anxiety disorder in response to a traumatic event Symptoms of PTSD Memories, dreams, or nightmares about event Avoid activities, thoughts, feelings, conversations that are reminders of the event Depression, anxiety, guilt, fear, helplessness Sleep problems; may feel detached from others What events cause PTSD? Most commonly combat, natural disasters, abuse, and victimization © John Wiley & Sons Canada, Ltd. Who Develops PTSD? Can occur at any age, even in childhood 10% of Canadians during course of lifetime Twice as common in women than men Biological factors Intense biochemical reactions that continue far beyond fight-or-flight Examples: Increased cortisol and norepinephrine in rape victims and others who experienced severe stressors May have exaggerated sympathetic nervous system responses and blunted HPA axis responses to stress May have a smaller hippocampus or the biochemical arousal may eventually shrink the hippocampus © John Wiley & Sons Canada, Ltd. Personality, Childhood Experiences, and Social Support After a traumatic event: Personality traits associated with decreased likelihood of developing PTSD Examples: Optimism, constructive coping, more resilient Childhood experiences may increase risk of developing PTSD Examples: Poverty, abuse, family psychological disorders, experienced a catastrophe at a young age Social environment Individuals with weak social support are more likely to experience PTSD © John Wiley & Sons Canada, Ltd. Copyright Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons Canada, Ltd. All rights reserved. Reproduction or translation of this work beyond that permitted by Access Copyright (The Canadian Copyright Licensing Agency) is unlawful. Requests for further information should be addressed to the Permissions Department, John Wiley & Sons Canada, Ltd. The purchaser may make back-up copies for his or her own use only and not for distribution or resale. The author and the publisher assume no responsibility for errors, omissions, or damages caused by the use of these programs or from the use of the information contained herein.
