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Chapter 1 A CULTURAL APPROACH TO CHILD DEVELOPMENT ©© 2013 2013 byby Pearson Pearson Education, Education, Inc. Inc. AllAll rights rights reserved. reserved. Introduction to Child Development • Human Development-the way people grow and change across the lifespan • Culture- the total pattern of a group’s customs, beliefs, art, and technology handed down through language. • Globalization-connections between different parts of the world in trade, travel, migration and communication © © 2013 2013 by by Pearson Pearson Education, Education, Inc. Inc. All All rights rights reserved. reserved. Human Development Today and Its Origins © © 2013 2013 by by Pearson Pearson Education, Education, Inc. Inc. All All rights rights reserved. reserved. Figure 1.1 World Population Growth, Past 10,000 years What happened in recent human history to cause population to rise so dramatically? Source: Ember (2007) © © 2013 2013 by by Pearson Pearson Education, Education, Inc. Inc. All All rights rights reserved. reserved. Why did the population increase Why did the population increase? © © 2013 2013 by by Pearson Pearson Education, Education, Inc. Inc. All All rights rights reserved. reserved. Why did the population increase? 1. agriculture 2. domestication of animals © © 2013 2013 by by Pearson Pearson Education, Education, Inc. Inc. All All rights rights reserved. reserved. Variations Across Countries LO 1.1 Demographic Profiles of Developed and Developing Countries • Developed Countries-most affluent countries in the world 17% of total world population US, Canada, Japan, S.Korea, Australia, New Zealand, Chile, Almost all European countries. • Developing Countries-less wealth than developed countries 82% of total world population © © 2013 2013 by by Pearson Pearson Education, Education, Inc. Inc. All All rights rights reserved. reserved. • In next decades developing countries will see almost all of the population growth. • Developed countries will decline in population growth Why? • U.S will experience population growth WHY? © © 2013 2013 by by Pearson Pearson Education, Education, Inc. Inc. All All rights rights reserved. reserved. Demographic Profile of the US LO 1.1 Demographic profiles of developed and developing countries • Reasons the US follows a different demographic path Total Fertility rate (2.0) is higher than most developing countries United States allows more LEGAL immigration than most developing countries Tens of millions of undocumented immigrants © © 2013 2013 by by Pearson Pearson Education, Education, Inc. Inc. All All rights rights reserved. reserved. Map 1.1 Projected Ethnic Changes in U.S. Population to 2050 Which ethnic group is projected to change the most in the coming decades, and why? © © 2013 2013 by by Pearson Pearson Education, Education, Inc. Inc. All All rights rights reserved. reserved. More Cultural Variation • Variations between developing and developed countries Income Education Cultural Beliefs - Individualistic- value independence & self expression - Collectivistic- value obedience & group harmony © © 2013 2013 by by Pearson Pearson Education, Education, Inc. Inc. All All rights rights reserved. reserved. Map 1.2 Worldwide Variations in Population and Income Levels Developed countries represent only 18% of the world population yet they are much wealthier than developing countries. At what point in its economic development should a developing country be reclassified as a developed country? (continued on next slide) © © 2013 2013 by by Pearson Pearson Education, Education, Inc. Inc. All All rights rights reserved. reserved. Variations Within Countries LO 1.2 Define socioeconomic status • Majority culture-sets norms & standards, holds most positions of power (political, economic, intellectual, media) • Contexts-Settings & circumstances such as:family, school, community, media... that contribute to human development. • SES (Socioeconomic Status)-social class including educational level, income level and occupational status What do you think is the majority culture in the US? © © 2013 2013 by by Pearson Pearson Education, Education, Inc. Inc. All All rights rights reserved. reserved. Variations Within Countries LO 1.2 Define socioeconomic status 1. SES (Socioeconomic Status)-social class including educational level, income level and occupational status 2. Gender-Expectations of male and female roles 3. Ethnicity-Cultural origin, traditions, race, religion and language © © 2013 2013 by by Pearson Pearson Education, Education, Inc. Inc. All All rights rights reserved. reserved. The Origins of Human Diversity © © 2013 2013 by by Pearson Pearson Education, Education, Inc. Inc. All All rights rights reserved. reserved. Evolutionary Beginnings LO 1.3 Evolutionary origins of humans • Evolutionary theory proposed by Charles Darwin “The Origin of Species” 1859 • Natural selection Young are born with variations of characteristics Species change little by little each generation The ones who will survive and reproduce are the ones who can best adapt to their environment. © © 2013 2013 by by Pearson Pearson Education, Education, Inc. Inc. All All rights rights reserved. reserved. Evolutionary Beginnings LO 1.3 Evolutionary origins of humans • Humans’ evolutionary beginning shares ancestry with chimpanzees and gorillas we share 99.4% of the same genes w/chimps!!!!!! • Human evolutionary line called hominid line from other primates (6 million years ago). Bipedal locomotion: walking on 2 legs Why was bipedal locomotion an efficient adaptation? • Hominid line split into 2 lines. 1 died out the other was called Homo species (3 million years ago). • Homo species evolved into Homo sapiens aka modern humans (200,000 years ago) © © 2013 2013 by by Pearson Pearson Education, Education, Inc. Inc. All All rights rights reserved. reserved. The Origins of Human Diversity LO 1.4 Applying Evolution to Development Today • We share many characteristics with our hominid relatives: Large brains relative to our body size Long period of dependence on adults Cooperative living in small groups © © 2013 2013 by by Pearson Pearson Education, Education, Inc. Inc. All All rights rights reserved. reserved. Human Evolution and Human Development Today • Biologically, we have changed little since the origin of homo sapiens. • Our larger brains meant that we were capable of altering our environments. © © 2013 2013 by by Pearson Pearson Education, Education, Inc. Inc. All All rights rights reserved. reserved. Human Evolution and Human Development Today • Human development can be understood by understanding human evolution Development is partly based on evolution Little biological change since Homo sapiens Development of larger brain contributes to culture and environmental expansion © © 2013 2013 by by Pearson Pearson Education, Education, Inc. Inc. All All rights rights reserved. reserved. L.O. 1.4 Figure 1.2 Time Line of Human History From Upper Paleolithic Period to the Present (continued on next slide) © © 2013 2013 by by Pearson Pearson Education, Education, Inc. Inc. All All rights rights reserved. reserved. L.O. 1.4 Figure 1.2 Time Line of Human History From Upper Paleolithic Period to the Present (continued from previous slide) © © 2013 2013 by by Pearson Pearson Education, Education, Inc. Inc. All All rights rights reserved. reserved. • When did the 1st civilization begin? • What are some characteristics of a civilization? • What is a state? © © 2013 2013 by by Pearson Pearson Education, Education, Inc. Inc. All All rights rights reserved. reserved. Theories of Human Development © © 2013 2013 by by Pearson Pearson Education, Education, Inc. Inc. All All rights rights reserved. reserved. Classic Theories LO 1.5 Freud and Erikson • Scientific theories have been around for a short time (only about 120 years) • The major theories of conceptualizing development are: Psychoanalytic approach - Psychosexual-Freud - Psychosocial-Erikson Behaviorist approach Constructivist approach © © 2013 2013 by by Pearson Pearson Education, Education, Inc. Inc. All All rights rights reserved. reserved. Freud's Psychosexual Theory 1865-1939 • Earliest scientific theory of human development • Worked w/people who suffered from different mental health problems • Learned that his patients has experienced some kind of traumatic event in childhood • Trauma was buried in the unconscious mind/repressed • Repressed experiences shaped people's personality & mental functioning. • Developed psychoanalysis to bring out those repressed memories and work through them © © 2013 2013 by by Pearson Pearson Education, Education, Inc. Inc. All All rights rights reserved. reserved. • Developed psychosexual theory based on his work w/patients. • Sexual desire is the driving force behind human development. © © 2013 2013 by by Pearson Pearson Education, Education, Inc. Inc. All All rights rights reserved. reserved. Freud’s Psychosexual Theory The mind consists of three basic parts the id – primitive sexual and aggressive instincts inherited through evolution Constantly seeks immediate/unrestrained satisfaction. the ego – rational thought, reality principle the superego – conscience, morality constant state of conflict between the three components © © 2013 2013 by by Pearson Pearson Education, Education, Inc. Inc. All All rights rights reserved. reserved. Example when arguing with someone id= hitting or pushing that person superego= not polite to hit someone ego= angry words and walk away © © 2013 2013 by by Pearson Pearson Education, Education, Inc. Inc. All All rights rights reserved. reserved. Table 1.1 Freud’s Psychosexual Stages © © 2013 2013 by by Pearson Pearson Education, Education, Inc. Inc. All All rights rights reserved. reserved. Freud’s Psychosexual Theory LO 1.5 Freud and Erikson • Psychosexual stages focused on areas of sensation and fixation • Ex: if a child was toilet trained too soon they would grow up being obsessed with cleanliness, detail, order (anal stage) • Limits include: Complexity of human behavior and Freud’s research methodology • He never worked with children © © 2013 2013 by by Pearson Pearson Education, Education, Inc. Inc. All All rights rights reserved. reserved. Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory LO 1.5 Freud and Erikson • Focuses on social and cultural environment and not sexuality • Continued throughout lifespan and not limited to first six years as Freud • Eight stages of development characterized by crisis and resolution © © 2013 2013 by by Pearson Pearson Education, Education, Inc. Inc. All All rights rights reserved. reserved. Table 1.2 Erikson’s Eight Stages of Psychosocial Development © © 2013 2013 by by Pearson Pearson Education, Education, Inc. Inc. All All rights rights reserved. reserved. John Watson Behaviorism-theory that all thought & behavior can be explained in terms of learning mechanisms • Anything can be learned • Behavior can be shaped by the response of others • Little Albert experiment © © 2013 2013 by by Pearson Pearson Education, Education, Inc. Inc. All All rights rights reserved. reserved. Pavlov • classical conditioning studies with dogs. • Dogs salivate (unconditioned response) to small of food (unconditioned stimulus) • Bell (neutral stimulus) caused salivation (conditioned response) • Skinner- operant conditioning experiments with rats and pigeons showed how reinforcers can shape behavior. © © 2013 2013 by by Pearson Pearson Education, Education, Inc. Inc. All All rights rights reserved. reserved. B.F. Skinner • • Operant conditioning-voluntary behavior can be modified through the use of reinforcement Ex: a child picks up his toys and gets a sticker © © 2013 2013 by by Pearson Pearson Education, Education, Inc. Inc. All All rights rights reserved. reserved. Albert Bandura LO 1.6 Watson, Skinner, & Bandura • Social learning theory- learning can also occur via observation, without directly experiencing reinforcement or conditioning. • Bandura- Bobo doll experiments © © 2013 2013 by by Pearson Pearson Education, Education, Inc. Inc. All All rights rights reserved. reserved. Constructivist Theories LO 1.7 Piaget and Vygotsky • Knowledge is not a copy of reality • People actively construct reality in the mind as they interact with objects & people in the world 1. Jean Piaget 2. Lev Vygotsky © © 2013 2013 by by Pearson Pearson Education, Education, Inc. Inc. All All rights rights reserved. reserved. Constructivist Theories LO 1.7 Piaget and Vygotsky Cognitive Constructivist Children actively adjust their understanding about the world as they learn about it. A. mental schemes: children’s cognitive structures for processing, organizing, and interpreting information. B. assimilation: process of bringing new objects or information into a scheme that already exists in the mind. C. accommodation: process of adjusting a scheme so it better fits the new experience. © © 2013 2013 by by Pearson Pearson Education, Education, Inc. Inc. All All rights rights reserved. reserved. Constructivist Theories LO 1.7 Piaget and Vygotsky • Vygotsky’s Social Constructivist Theory- views cognitive development as a social and cultural process. • Aka sociocultural theory • Social b/c we learn from interactions • Cultural b/c what we need to know is determined by the culture we live in. zone of proximal development (ZPD) scaffolding © © 2013 2013 by by Pearson Pearson Education, Education, Inc. Inc. All All rights rights reserved. reserved. Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Theory LO 1.8 Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Theory • Focuses on multiple influences that shape behavior. • Five levels: Microsystem-Immediate environment Mesosystem-Interconnections between microsystems Exosystem-institutions that have indirect effects on development Macrosystem-Cultural Beliefs Chronosystem-Time © © 2013 2013 by by Pearson Pearson Education, Education, Inc. Inc. All All rights rights reserved. reserved. L.O. 1.10 Figure 1.3 The Systems in Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Theory How does this theory of human development differ from Freud’s and Erikson’s? © © 2013 2013 by by Pearson Pearson Education, Education, Inc. Inc. All All rights rights reserved. reserved. How We Study Human Development © © 2013 2013 by by Pearson Pearson Education, Education, Inc. Inc. All All rights rights reserved. reserved. Scientific Study of Human Development • The scientific method Composed of 5 steps: - Identifying a question Forming a hypothesis Choosing a research method or design Collecting data Drawing conclusions © © 2013 2013 by by Pearson Pearson Education, Education, Inc. Inc. All All rights rights reserved. reserved. The Scientific Method LO 1.9 Scientific Method Figure 1.4 The Steps of the Scientific Method © © 2013 2013 by by Pearson Pearson Education, Education, Inc. Inc. All All rights rights reserved. reserved. The Five Steps of the Scientific Method 1. Every study starts with an idea or question Can come from previous research, a theory or personal observation 2. Forming a hypothesis The researcher’s idea about a possible answer to a research question Will dictate research methods, design, and analysis © © 2013 2013 by by Pearson Pearson Education, Education, Inc. Inc. All All rights rights reserved. reserved. The Five Steps of the Scientific Method 3. Choose a research method and design The way hypotheses are investigated 4. Collecting data Researchers try to collect a sample that represents the population 5. Draw conclusions Data is inferred and peer reviewed Can lead to theory modification or changes © © 2013 2013 by by Pearson Pearson Education, Education, Inc. Inc. All All rights rights reserved. reserved. Ethics in Human Development Research • Institutional Review Boards work to prevent ethical violations • Ethical guidelines include: Protection from physical and psychological harm Informed consent prior to participation Confidentiality Deception and debriefing (LO 1.10 Ethical standards) © © 2013 2013 by by Pearson Pearson Education, Education, Inc. Inc. All All rights rights reserved. reserved. Methods and Designs in Research LO 1.11 Research methods • Researchers use various methods to investigate human development Questionnaires - Closed- or Open-ended Interviews-qualitative Observations Ethnographic Research Case studies Biological Methods © © 2013 2013 by by Pearson Pearson Education, Education, Inc. Inc. All All rights rights reserved. reserved. Methods and Designs in Research Experimental Research Experiments establish cause and effect • Tend to have basic components Experimental Group- receives the treatment Control Group- receives NO treatment Independent Variable-variable that is different for the experimental group than for the control group. Dependent Variable- the outcome that is measures to calculate the results of the experiment by comparing the two groups Natural experiments • Situation that happens naturally • Ex: adoption, twin studies, © © 2013 2013 by by Pearson Pearson Education, Education, Inc. Inc. All All rights rights reserved. reserved. Table 1.4 Research Methods: Advantages and Limitations © © 2013 2013 by by Pearson Pearson Education, Education, Inc. Inc. All All rights rights reserved. reserved. Methods and Designs in Research • Researchers use multiple methods, but it is important that they have reliability and validity Reliability-Consistency of measurement ex: asking the same question w/in 6 months of each other and getting the same response. Validity-Truthfulness of the measure - Does it measure what it claims to measure? - Do IQ tests really measure intelligence? © © 2013 2013 by by Pearson Pearson Education, Education, Inc. Inc. All All rights rights reserved. reserved. Developmental Research Designs LO 1.12 Research designs • These designs allow researchers to examine changes over time 1. Cross-sectional - Gathers information from wide age range on one occasion. - Yields a Correlation-measures relation between two variables, but can not prove causation. - EX: correlations between parenting behavior & children's functioning Positive correlation - great parenting = great kids increase in sun exposure= severity of burn • Negative correlation-great parenting= troubled kids temperature outside=number of layers people wear • © © 2013 2013 by by Pearson Pearson Education, Education, Inc. Inc. All All rights rights reserved. reserved. L.O. 1.15 Figure 1.5 Physical Health and Exercise Are Correlated—But Which Causes Which? © © 2013 2013 by by Pearson Pearson Education, Education, Inc. Inc. All All rights rights reserved. reserved. Developmental Research Designs 2. Longitudinal design follows same persons over time Can focus on how people change over time Can deal with cohort effects to SOME degree Explanation of group differences among people of different ages. © © 2013 2013 by by Pearson Pearson Education, Education, Inc. Inc. All All rights rights reserved. reserved. L.O. 1.15 © © 2013 2013 by by Pearson Pearson Education, Education, Inc. Inc. All All rights rights reserved. reserved.