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Chapter 4 Perception, Attribution, and Learning It’s in the eye of the beholder Chapter 4 Study Questions • • • • • What is the perception process? What are common perceptual distortions? How can perceptions be managed? What is attribution theory? What is learning? Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 4-2 What is the perception process? • Perception – The process by which people select, organize, interpret, retrieve, and respond to information from the world around them Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 4-3 Figure 4.1 Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 4-4 Figure 4.2 Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 4-5 Figure 4.3 Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 4-6 Figure 4.4 Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 4-7 What is the perception process? • Attention and selection – Selective screening • Lets in only a tiny portion all the information that is available – Two types of selective screening • Controlled processing • Screening without perceiver’s conscious awareness Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 4-8 What is the perception process? • Schemas – Cognitive frameworks that represent organized knowledge about a given concept or stimulus developed through experience Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 4-9 What is the perception process? • Self schemas – contains information about a person’s own appearance, behavior, and personality • Person schemas – refer to the way individuals sort others into categories in terms of similar perceived features Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 4-10 What is the perception process? • Script schema – a knowledge framework that describes the appropriate sequence of events in a given situation • Person-in-situation schema – combines schemas built around persons and events Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 4-11 What is the perception process? • Interpretation – Uncovering the reasons behind the ways stimuli are grouped Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 4-12 What is the perception process? • Retrieval – Attention and selection, organization, and interpretation are part of memory – Information stored in memory must be retrieved in order to be used Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 4-13 Figure 4.5 Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 4-14 What are common perceptual distortions? • Stereotypes or prototypes – Combines information based on the category or class to which a person, situation, or object belongs – Individual differences are obscured – Strong impact at the organization stage Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 4-15 What are common perceptual distortions? • Halo effects – Occur when one attribute of a person or situation is used to develop an overall impression of the individual or situation Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 4-16 What are common perceptual distortions? • Selective perception – The tendency to single out for attention those aspects of a situation, person, or object that are consistent with one’s needs, values, or attitudes. Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 4-17 What are common perceptual distortions? • Projection – The assignment of one’s personal attributes to other individuals Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 4-18 What are common perceptual distortions? • Contrast effects – Occur when an individual’s characteristics are contrasted with those of others recently encountered, who rank higher or lower on the same characteristics Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 4-19 What are common perceptual distortions? • Self-fulfilling prophecy – The tendency to create or find in another situation or individual that which one expected to find Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 4-20 How can perceptions be managed? • Impression management – A person’s systematic attempt to behave in ways that create and maintain desired impressions in others’ eyes Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 4-21 How can perceptions be managed? • Distortion management – Managers should: • Balance automatic and controlled information processing at the attention and selection stage • Broaden their schemas at the organizing stage • Be attuned to attributions at the interpretation stage Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 4-22 What is attribution theory? Attribution theory focuses on how people attempt to: • Understand the causes of a certain event. • Assess responsibility for the outcomes of the event. • Evaluate the personal qualities of the people involved in the event. Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 4-23 What is attribution theory? • Distinctiveness – consistency of a person’s behavior across situations • Consensus – likelihood of others responding in a similar way • Consistency – whether an individual responds the same way across time Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 4-24 Figure 4.6 Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 4-25 What is attribution theory? • Fundamental attribution error – tendency to underestimate the influence of situational factors and to overestimate the influence of personal factors in evaluating someone else’s behavior Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 4-26 What is attribution theory? • Self-serving bias – tendency to deny personal responsibility for performance problems but to accept personal responsibility for performance success Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 4-27 What is learning? • Social learning theory – uses modeling or vicarious learning to acquire behavior through observing and imitating others by means of perception and attribution. Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 4-28 What is learning? • Reinforcement – The administration of a consequence as a result of a behavior Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 4-29 Figure 4.7 Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 4-30 What is learning? • Classical conditioning – a form of learning through association that involves the manipulation of stimuli to influence behavior • Stimulus – something that incites action Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 4-31 What is learning? • Operant conditioning – the process of controlling behavior by manipulating, or “operating” on, its consequences Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 4-32 What is learning? • Law of effect – Behavior that results in a pleasant outcome is likely to be repeated while behavior that results in an unpleasant outcome is not likely to be repeated Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 4-33 Figure 4.8 Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 4-34 What is learning? • Organizational behavior modification (OB Mod) – The systematic reinforcement of desirable work behavior and the nonreinforcement or punishment of unwanted work behavior Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 4-35 What is learning? • Positive reinforcement – The administration of positive consequences to increase the likelihood of repeating the desired behavior in similar settings Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 4-36 What is learning? • Law of contingent reinforcement – The reward must be delivered only if the desired behavior is exhibited • Law of immediate reinforcement – The reward must be given as soon as possible after the desired behavior is exhibited Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 4-37 What is learning? • Shaping – the creation of a new behavior by the positive reinforcement of successive approximations to the desired behavior Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 4-38 What is learning? • Continuous reinforcement – Administers a reward each time the desired behavior occurs • Intermittent reinforcement – Rewards behavior periodically — either on the basis of time elapsed or the number of desired behaviors exhibited Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 4-39 Figure 4.9 Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 4-40 What is learning? • Negative reinforcement – The withdrawal of negative consequences to increase the likelihood of repeating the desired behavior in a similar setting Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 4-41 What is learning? • Punishment – The administration of negative consequences or the withdrawal of positive consequences to reduce the likelihood of repeating the behavior in similar settings Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 4-42 What is learning? • Implications of using punishment – Punishing poor performance enhances performance without affecting satisfaction – Arbitrary and capricious punishment leads to poor performance and low satisfaction Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 4-43 What is learning? • Extinction – The withdrawal of the reinforcing consequences for a given behavior Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 4-44 Figure 4.10 Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 4-45 What is learning? • Social learning theory – Social learning is achieved through the reciprocal interactions among people, behavior, and environment • Self-efficacy – the person’s belief that he or she can perform adequately in a situation Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 4-46 Figure 4.11 Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 4-47