Download Chapter 4 Perception, Attribution, and Learning

Chapter 4
Perception, Attribution,
and Learning
It’s in the eye of the
beholder
Chapter 4 Study Questions
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What is the perception process?
What are common perceptual distortions?
How can perceptions be managed?
What is attribution theory?
What is learning?
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What is the perception process?
• Perception
– The process by which people select, organize,
interpret, retrieve, and respond to information
from the world around them
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Figure 4.1
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Figure 4.2
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Figure 4.3
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Figure 4.4
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What is the perception process?
• Attention and selection
– Selective screening
• Lets in only a tiny portion all the information that is
available
– Two types of selective screening
• Controlled processing
• Screening without perceiver’s conscious awareness
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What is the perception process?
• Schemas
– Cognitive frameworks that represent organized
knowledge about a given concept or stimulus
developed through experience
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What is the perception process?
• Self schemas
– contains information about a person’s own
appearance, behavior, and personality
• Person schemas
– refer to the way individuals sort others into
categories in terms of similar perceived
features
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What is the perception process?
• Script schema
– a knowledge framework that describes the
appropriate sequence of events in a given
situation
• Person-in-situation schema
– combines schemas built around persons and
events
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What is the perception process?
• Interpretation
– Uncovering the reasons behind the ways
stimuli are grouped
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What is the perception process?
• Retrieval
– Attention and selection, organization, and
interpretation are part of memory
– Information stored in memory must be retrieved
in order to be used
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Figure 4.5
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What are common
perceptual distortions?
• Stereotypes or prototypes
– Combines information based on the category or
class to which a person, situation, or object
belongs
– Individual differences are obscured
– Strong impact at the organization stage
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What are common
perceptual distortions?
• Halo effects
– Occur when one attribute of a person or
situation is used to develop an overall
impression of the individual or situation
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What are common
perceptual distortions?
• Selective perception
– The tendency to single out for attention those
aspects of a situation, person, or object that are
consistent with one’s needs, values, or
attitudes.
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What are common
perceptual distortions?
• Projection
– The assignment of one’s personal attributes to
other individuals
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What are common
perceptual distortions?
• Contrast effects
– Occur when an individual’s characteristics are
contrasted with those of others recently
encountered, who rank higher or lower on the
same characteristics
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What are common
perceptual distortions?
• Self-fulfilling prophecy
– The tendency to create or find in another
situation or individual that which one expected
to find
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How can perceptions be
managed?
• Impression management
– A person’s systematic attempt to behave in
ways that create and maintain desired
impressions in others’ eyes
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How can perceptions be
managed?
• Distortion management
– Managers should:
• Balance automatic and controlled information
processing at the attention and selection stage
• Broaden their schemas at the organizing stage
• Be attuned to attributions at the interpretation stage
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What is attribution theory?
Attribution theory focuses on how people
attempt to:
• Understand the causes of a certain event.
• Assess responsibility for the outcomes of
the event.
• Evaluate the personal qualities of the
people involved in the event.
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What is attribution theory?
• Distinctiveness
– consistency of a person’s behavior across
situations
• Consensus
– likelihood of others responding in a similar way
• Consistency
– whether an individual responds the same way
across time
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Figure 4.6
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What is attribution theory?
• Fundamental attribution error
– tendency to underestimate the influence of
situational factors and to overestimate the
influence of personal factors in evaluating
someone else’s behavior
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What is attribution theory?
• Self-serving bias
– tendency to deny personal responsibility for
performance problems but to accept personal
responsibility for performance success
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What is learning?
• Social learning theory
– uses modeling or vicarious learning to acquire
behavior through observing and imitating others
by means of perception and attribution.
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What is learning?
• Reinforcement
– The administration of a consequence as a
result of a behavior
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Figure 4.7
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What is learning?
• Classical conditioning
– a form of learning through association that
involves the manipulation of stimuli to influence
behavior
• Stimulus
– something that incites action
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What is learning?
• Operant conditioning
– the process of controlling behavior by
manipulating, or “operating” on, its
consequences
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What is learning?
• Law of effect
– Behavior that results in a pleasant outcome is
likely to be repeated while behavior that results
in an unpleasant outcome is not likely to be
repeated
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Figure 4.8
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What is learning?
• Organizational behavior modification
(OB Mod)
– The systematic reinforcement of desirable work
behavior and the nonreinforcement or
punishment of unwanted work behavior
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What is learning?
• Positive reinforcement
– The administration of positive consequences to
increase the likelihood of repeating the desired
behavior in similar settings
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What is learning?
• Law of contingent reinforcement
– The reward must be delivered only if the
desired behavior is exhibited
• Law of immediate reinforcement
– The reward must be given as soon as possible
after the desired behavior is exhibited
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What is learning?
• Shaping
– the creation of a new behavior by the positive
reinforcement of successive approximations to
the desired behavior
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What is learning?
• Continuous reinforcement
– Administers a reward each time the desired
behavior occurs
• Intermittent reinforcement
– Rewards behavior periodically — either on the
basis of time elapsed or the number of desired
behaviors exhibited
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Figure 4.9
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What is learning?
• Negative reinforcement
– The withdrawal of negative consequences to
increase the likelihood of repeating the desired
behavior in a similar setting
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What is learning?
• Punishment
– The administration of negative consequences
or the withdrawal of positive consequences to
reduce the likelihood of repeating the behavior
in similar settings
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What is learning?
• Implications of using punishment
– Punishing poor performance enhances
performance without affecting satisfaction
– Arbitrary and capricious punishment leads to
poor performance and low satisfaction
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What is learning?
• Extinction
– The withdrawal of the reinforcing
consequences for a given behavior
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Figure 4.10
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What is learning?
• Social learning theory
– Social learning is achieved through the
reciprocal interactions among people, behavior,
and environment
• Self-efficacy
– the person’s belief that he or she can perform
adequately in a situation
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Figure 4.11
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