Download Review from Basic Psych

Review from Basic Psych
Chapters 1-4
The Psychoanalytic Perspective
• View children (and adults) involved in conflict
– Internal drive and urges
– Internalize ‘external’ demands and rules
• Freud’s theory of psychosexual development
• Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development
• Stage theories
– Distinct periods of development
Freud’s Theory of Psychosexual Development
• Sigmund Freud (1856–1939)
• Levels of awareness
– Conscious level
– Preconscious level
– Unconscious level
• Parts of personality
– Id
– Ego
– Superego
• Quantity of gratification at each stage
– Fixated at that stage
Stages of Psychosexual Theory of Development
• Oral Stage
– Sucking and biting
– Early weaning or breast-fed too long
– Fixation: nail-biting, smoking, “biting wit”
• Anal Stage
– Control and elimination of waste
– Excessively strict or permissive toilet training
– Fixation: anal-retentive (neatness); anal-expulsion (sloppiness)
Stages of Psychosexual Theory of Development
• Phallic Stage
– Parent-child conflict over masturbation
– View same-sex parent as rival
• Latency Stage
– Sexual feelings remain unconscious
• Genital Stage
– Begins at adolescence
– Desire sexual gratification through intercourse with member of other
sex
– Interest in any other sexual gratification indicates fixation at an
earlier stage of development
Evaluation of Psychosexual Theory of Development
• Contributions
– Comprehensive theory of childhood
– Influenced parents, child-care workers and educators
• Criticisms
– Based on patients (women) who were emotionally troubled
– Little empirical data
– Placed too much emphasis on instincts and unconscious motives
• Erik Erikson and Karen Horney
Erikson’s Theory of Psychosocial Development
• Erik Erikson (1902–1994)
– Modified and expanded Freud’s theory
– Successful resolution of life crises bolsters sense of identity
• Differences from psychosexual development
– Focuses on development of self-identity
– Includes conscious and purposeful acts in development
– Extends stages to eight; throughout adulthood
Stages of Psychosocial Development
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Trust versus Mistrust
Autonomy versus Shame and Doubt
Initiative versus Guilt
Industry versus Inferiority
Identity versus Role Diffusion
Intimacy versus Isolation
Generativity versus Stagnation
Ego Integrity versus Despair
Evaluation of Psychosocial Development
• Highly appealing
– Emphasizes choice and minimizes urges
– Portrays people as prosocial and giving
• Unified view of life-span development
• Some empirical support
The Learning Perspective
Behavioral and Social Cognitive Theories
• Behaviorism
– Classical conditioning
– Operant conditioning
• Social Cognitive Theory
– Observational learning
What Is Behaviorism?
• John B. Watson
– Only addresses observable behavior
• Classical Conditioning
• Operant Conditioning
Classical Conditioning
• Simple learning
– Neutral stimulus repeatedly paired with second stimulus
– Elicits the response usually brought by the second stimulus
• Example: Bell and Pad Method to eliminate bed-wetting
Classical Conditioning
Figure 1.1
A Closer Look – Real Life
The Bell-and-Pad Method
for Treating Bed-Wetting
Operant Conditioning
• Learn to do something because of its effects
• B. F. Skinner – Reinforcement
– Any stimulus that increases the frequency of the behavior they
follow
Principles of Operant Conditioning
• Positive reinforcers
– Something applied that increases the frequency of the behavior
• Negative reinforcers
– Something removed that increases the frequency of the behavior
Positive Versus Negative Reinforcers
Figure 1.2
Punishment
• Aversive events that decrease the behavior they follow
• Effective in emergencies, but less preferable in general
– Does not suggest an alternative, acceptable form of behavior
– Tends to suppress undesirable behavior only under certain
conditions
– Punished children may withdraw from the situation
– Can create anger and hostility
– May generalize too far
– May be imitated as a way of problem solving or coping with stress
• More preferable to reward children for desirable behavior
Negative Reinforcers Versus Punishments
Figure 1.3
Social Cognitive Theory
• Albert Bandura
– Acquire basic “know-how” through observational learning
– Latent learning
• Learning alters child’s mental representation of environment and
influences belief in ability to change the environment
• Child is an active learner
• Intentional observation of models for imitation
Evaluation of Learning Theories
• Contributions
– Meets the goals of describing, explaining, predicting, and
influencing aspects of children’s behavior
– Principles are abundant in education and clinical application
• Criticisms
– Unclear if learning is only mechanical
– Underestimates role of biological-maturation factors
The Cognitive Perspective
• Focuses on children’s mental processes
– How children perceive and mentally represent the world
• Jean Piaget (1896–1980)
– Cognitive-developmental theory
• Information-processing theory
Piaget’s Cognitive-Developmental Theory
• Working with Binet on IQ tests for children, Piaget became
interested in children’s wrong answers
• Piaget’s work was not widely read until mid 1950s
– Difficult to understand
– Introduced when behaviorism and psychoanalysis were popular
• Piaget’s view of children as “natural physicists”
Piaget’s Basic Concepts
• Scheme
– Pattern of action involved in acquiring or organizing knowledge
• Adaptation
– Interaction between child and the environment
• Assimilation
– Responding to new object or event according to existing schemes
• Accommodation
– Adjusting scheme to a new object or event
• Equilibration
– Process of restoring equilibrium after a period of accommodation
Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive-Development Theory
• Four major stages
–
–
–
–
Sensorimotor
Preoperational
Concrete Operational
Formal Operational
• Stages are universal
• Development is based on children’s interactions with their
environments
• Influential in many educational settings
Evaluation of Cognitive-Development Theory
• Piaget may have underestimated children’s abilities by age
• Cognitive growth may be more gradual than Piaget’s distinct
stages
Information-Processing Theory
• Influenced by the concepts of computer science
–
–
–
–
–
–
Process of encoding information (input)
Storage of information (long-term memory)
Retrieval of information (short-term memory)
Manipulation of information to solve problems (output)
Software (mental processes)
Hardware (brain)
• Consider “limitations” of child
– Short-term memory
– Ability to multi-task
• Applications in education
The Biological Perspective
• Physical development
– Gains in height and weight
– Development of nervous system
– Developments connected with hormones, heredity
• Ethology
What Is Ethology?
• Concern with instinctive behavior patterns
– Influenced by Charles Darwin, Konrad Lorenz, and Niko Tinbergen
• Pre-wired—instinctive behavior patterns
– Fixed action patterns (FAPs)
– Influence of prenatal hormones
• Lorenz’s work on attachment during the first year
– Imprinting
Evaluation of Ethology
• Assume instinctive behaviors can be modified through learning
• Suggestion that instincts play a role in human behavior
The Ecological Perspective
• Explains development through interactions between children and
the settings in which they live
• Urie Bronfenbrenner (1917–2005)
– Reciprocal interactions
• Focus on interactions between parent and child (bidirectional)
The Sociocultural Perspective
• View children as social beings who are influenced by the cultures
in which they live
• Lev Vygotsky’s (1896–1934) sociocultural theory
• Impact of human diversity on children
Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory
• Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)
– Range of tasks child can perform with help of someone more skilled
– Use of conversations, external and internal, to guide the learning
• Scaffolding
– Adult provides problem-solving methods until child can perform
independently
– May also be used by children with peers
Evaluation of Sociocultural Theory
• Research support for
– Scaffolding
– Private speech
• Teachers often discourage private speech due to distraction
Controversies
• Nature vs Nurture
• Continuity vs discontinuity
• Active vs Passive
What Is Meant by Heredity?
• Heredity
– One’s nature based on biological transmission of traits and
characteristics
• Genetics
– Field within the science of biology that studies heredity
• Genetic Influences
– Physical traits
– Behavioral traits
– Psychological problems
What Are Chromosomes and Genes?
• Chromosomes
– Found in cells
– 23 pairs of rod-shaped structures
• Genes
– Segments within chromosomes
– Regulate development of traits
• Transmitted by single gene or may be polygenic
– 20,000 to 25,000 genes in every cell
What Are Chromosomes and Genes?
• DNA
–
–
–
–
Large strands make up genes
Double spiral (helix)
Composed of phosphate(P), simple sugar (S)
Base pairs adenine with thymine (A – T) or cytosine with guanine (C
– G)
How Are Twins Formed?
• Monozygotic Twins (MZ)
– Derived from a single zygote that has split in two
– Identical twins
• Dizygotic Twins (DZ)
– Derived from two zygotes
– Share 50% of genetic material
• Probability of twins increases
– Maternal age
– Use of fertility drugs
How Do Genes Determine Traits?
• Traits are determined by pairs of genes
– Each member of pair is an allele
• Homozygous
– Both alleles for a trait are the same
• Heterozygous
– Alleles for a trait are different
Dominant and Recessive Traits:
Mendel’s Laws of Heredity
• Averaging
– Effects of both alleles are shown
– Incomplete dominance or codominance
• Law of Dominance
– Dominant allele paired with recessive allele
• Dominant allele appears in offspring
Dominant and Recessive Traits
• Combinations of dominant and recessive genes
– Carriers
• Chromosomal or genetic abnormalities
– Occur in autosomes or sex chromosomes
– May be caused by a single gene or combinations
– Mutlifactorial
Chromosomal Abnormalities: Down Syndrome
• Cause: extra chromosome on 21st pair
• Probability increases with increased age of parent
• Characteristics of children
– Facial features
– Cognitive and physical deficiencies
• Adjustment of children
Down Syndrome
Figure 2.5
What Is the Difference Between Our Genotypes
and Our Phenotypes?
• Reaction range
– Range of possibilities for the expression of the trait
• Genotypes
– Set of traits inherited from parents
• Phenotypes
– Actual set of traits — product of genes and environment
Genetic – Environmental Correlation
• Passive Correlation
– Environment that child is placed into
• Evocative Correlation
– Child’s genotype elicits responses
• Active Correlation
– Environment child chooses
Using Research to Sort Out the Effects of Genetics and
Environmental Influences on Development
• Kinship Studies
– Genetic closeness of relatives
• Twin Studies
– Monozygotic twins share 100% of genes
– Dizygotic twins share 50% of genes (same as other siblings)
– Reared together versus reared apart
• Adoption Studies
Prenatal Development
Failed Pregnancy
• Miscarriage (spontaneous abortion)
– Usually stems from abnormalities in development
– One-third of all pregnancies result in miscarriage
Human Embryos and Fetuses
Figure 3.2
When Does the Heart Begin to Beat?
• Heart begins to beat (3rd week)
• Arm buds and leg buds appear (4th week)
• Eyes, ears, nose and mouth begin to take shape
• Limbs are elongating, facial features become distinct (8th week)
• Teeth buds, working kidneys and liver (8th week)
Development of the Nervous System
• By end of first month, neural tube is producing 400 million
neurons per day
• Neurons form cerebral hemispheres (5th week)
• Cells in the nervous system begin to release neurotransmitters
(2nd month)
How Does the Nutrition of the Mother
Affect Prenatal Development?
• Malnutrition in mother (esp. during last trimester)
– Low-birth-weight, prematurity, stunted growth, retardation of brain
development, cognitive deficiencies, behavioral problems,
cardiovascular disease
– Some effects of fetal malnutrition can be overcome by supportive,
care-giving environments
• Maternal obesity
– Linked to higher risk of stillbirth
– Increases risk of neural tube defects
Teratogens and Health Problems of the Mother
• Teratogens – environmental agents that can harm embryo or
fetus
– Drug ingested by mother
– Substance produced by mother
– Heavy metals such as lead and mercury
– Excessive hormones
– Radiation
– Pathogens – bacteria and viruses
Does it Matter When, during Pregnancy,
a Women is Exposed to a Teratogen?
• Critical periods of exposure to teratogens
– Based on development of organs
• Embryo is more vulnerable than fetus due to major organ
systems differentiating
What are the Effects of Maternal Health Problems?
• Sexually Transmitted Infections (STIs)
– Syphilis can cause miscarriage, stillbirth, or congenital syphilis
– Infected mother can be treated with antibiotics before 8th week
– Infected mother not treated
• Baby 40-70% chance of being infected in utero
– Babies with congenital syphilis
What are the Effects of Maternal Health Problems?
• Sexually Transmitted Infections (STIs)
– HIV/AIDS (human immunodeficiency virus/acquired
immunodeficiency syndrome)
• Disables body’s immune system
• Lethal unless treated
– About one-quarter of babies born to HIV/AIDS-infected mothers are
infected also
• Many are infected during childbirth
• HIV is also found in breast milk
What are the Effects of Maternal Health Problems?
• Influenza (Flu)
– Impacts mother’s respiratory system
• Rubella (German measles)
– Viral infection may cause birth defects
• Toxemia
– May cause premature or undersized babies
– Cause of maternal death
• Rh Incompatibility
– Transfer of maternal antibodies that may cause brain damage or
death
What are the Effects of Drugs Taken by the Mother?
• Accutane
– Prescribed for difficult cases of acne
– Linked to numerous abnormalities during first trimester
• Thalidomide
– Missing or stunted limbs
• Antibiotics
– Tetracycline may lead to yellowed teeth and bone abnormalities
• Hormones
– Progestin can masculinize external sex organs of female embryo
– DES can cause cervical and testicular cancer
What are the Effects of Drugs Taken by the Mother?
• Vitamins
– High doses of vitamins A and D are associated with central nervous
system damage, small head size and heart defects
• Heroin and Methadone
– Maternal addiction linked to low-birth-weight, prematurity, and
toxemia
– Baby may be born addicted
• Marijuana
– Risk of low-birth-weight, immature development of nervous system
– Predisposes offspring to dependence on opiates, even in adulthood
What are the Effects of Drugs Taken by the Mother?
• Cocaine
– Maternal use of cocaine increases risk of stillbirth, low-birth-weight,
and birth defects
– In utero exposure results in problems throughout childhood
• Alcohol
– Alcohol passes through placenta and poses risks for death of fetus
and neonate, malformations, and growth deficiencies
– Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders
• Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS)
• Physical and psychological defects
• Fetal Alcohol Effect (FAE)
What are the Effects of Drugs Taken by the Mother?
• Caffeine
– Connected with miscarriage and low-birth-weight
• Cigarettes
– Nicotine and carbon monoxide pass through the placenta
• Nicotine stimulates fetus
• Carbon monoxide is toxic and decreases oxygen to fetus
– More likely to deliver smaller babies
• More likely to be stillborn or die soon after birth
– Long-term effects
• Short attention spans, hyperactivity, lower cognitive scores, poor
grades
– Men who smoke are more likely to produce abnormal sperm
What are the Effects of Environmental Hazards?
• Heavy metals (lead, zinc, mercury)
– Threatens cognitive development
• Prenatal exposure to PCBs
– Connected with smaller, less responsive babies
– More likely to develop cognitive deficits
• Fetal exposure to radiation
– Risks for neural and skeletal problems
• Father’s exposure to heavy metals and radiation may also cause
abnormalities in baby
What are the Effects of Maternal Stress?
• Maternal stress linked to secretion of hormones
– Adrenaline passes through placenta
What Are the Effects of Oxygen Deprivation at Birth?
• Hypoxia and Anoxia – oxygen deprivation
• Prenatal oxygen deprivation
– Can impair development of central nervous system
– Cognitive, motor problems, and psychological disorders
• Oxygen deprived at birth
– Predicted problems in learning and memory
– Can cause health problems such as early-onset schizophrenia and
cerebral palsy
What Are the Effects of Oxygen Deprivation at Birth?
• Causes of Oxygen Deprivation
– Maternal disorders
– Immature respiratory system (baby)
– Prolonged constriction of umbilical cord during birth
• Breech presentation
What Is Meant by the Terms
Prematurity and Low-Birth-Weight?
• Premature or preterm baby
– Occurs before 37 weeks gestation (normal is 40 weeks)
• Low-birth-weight baby
– Weighs less than 5.5 pounds
• Small for date
– Low-birth-weight, although born at full term
What Risks Are Connected with Being Born
Prematurely or with Low-Birth-Weight?
• Infant mortality
– Neonates weighing 3.25 to 5.5 pounds are 7 times more likely to die
than infants of normal weight
– Those weighing less than 3.3 pounds are nearly 100 times as likely
to die
• Delayed neurological development
– Lower birth weight – poorer performance throughout school years
• Delayed motor development, such as walking
• Preschool experience fosters cognitive and social development
What Signs Are Connected with Being Born
Prematurely or with Low-Birth-Weight?
• Preterm babies show signs of immaturity
– Relatively thin
– Fine, downy hair (lanugo)
– Oily, white substance on skin (vernix)
• Preterms born six weeks or more prior to full term
– Nipples not yet emerged
– Testicles of boys not yet descended into scrotum
• Muscles immature and reflexes are weak
• Respiratory distress syndrome
– Walls of air sacs in lungs stick together
How Are Preterm Infants Treated Following Birth?
• Usually remain in hospital incubators
– Temperature-controlled environment with protection from infection
• Parents often do not treat preterms as well as full-term
– Less attractive than full-term babies
– High-pitched, grating cries
– More irritable
• Preterms and parent interaction is less even when they are
brought home
– Preterms with responsive parents fare better than those in less
responsive homes
How Are Preterm Infants Treated Following Birth?
• Interventions for preterm infants
– Benefit from external stimulation
– Massage
– Kangaroo care
• Preterm infants exposed to stimulation
– Gain weight more rapidly
– Show fewer respiratory problems
– Make greater advances in motor, intellectual, and neurological
development than controls
What Kinds of Problems in Mood Do Women
Experience During Postpartum Period?
• Baby blues
– Transient – about 10 days
– Do not impair mother’s functioning
• Postpartum depression (PPD)
–
–
–
–
Present in as many as 1 in 5-10 women
Begins one month after delivery and may linger for weeks/months
Major depressive disorder
May involve psychotic features (1 woman in 500 – 1,000)
How Critical Is Parental Interaction with Neonates in
the Formation of Bonds of Attachment?
• Bonding
– Formation of bonds of attachment between parent and child
– Hours after birth are just one aspect of bonding process
• “Maternal sensitive” period
– Amount of access to newborn (Klaus & Kennell, 1978)
– Extended early contact is not essential for adequate bonding
• Parent – child bonding is a complex process
– Desire to have a child
– Parent – child familiarity
Fathers and Newborn Bonding
• Swedish study on fathers and bonding with newborns
– Assigned primary importance to and spending time with baby
– Reported newborns provided positive feelings
• Bonding also affected by father’s relationship with the mother
• Bonding occurs partly by caring for baby
What Are Reflexes?
• Reflexes
– Simple, unlearned stereotypical responses, elicited by certain types
of stimulation
– Survival value
– Neural functioning is determined by testing reflex
What Kinds of Reflexes Are Shown by Neonates?
• Rooting
– Baby turns head and mouth toward stimulus that strokes the cheek,
chin, or corner of mouth
– Facilities finding mother’s nipple for sucking
• Sucking
– Babies will suck almost any object that touches the lips
– Will become replaced by voluntary sucking
What Kinds of Reflexes Are Shown by Neonates?
• Moro or startle reflex
– Back arches, legs and arms are flung out and then brought back
toward chest into a hugging motion
– Occurs when baby’s position is suddenly changed or head and neck
support is lost
– Elicited by loud noises or bumping the baby
– Usually lost 6 to 7 months after birth
What Kinds of Reflexes Are Shown by Neonates?
• Grasping or palmar reflex
– Using four fingers, babies grasp fingers/objects pressed against the
palms of their hands
– Most babies can support their own weight
– Usually lost by 3 to 4 months
– Replaced by voluntary grasping at 5 to 6 months
What Kinds of Reflexes Are Shown by Neonates?
• Stepping reflex
– Mimics walking when held under arms
– Usually disappears by 3 or 4 months
• Babinski reflex
– Fans or spreads toes in response to stroking foot
– Usually disappears at end of first year
• Tonic-neck reflex
– While lying on back, baby turns head to one side. Arm and leg on
that side extend, while opposite side flex.
Vision
• Visual acuity
–
–
–
–
Estimate of 20/600
Best see objects 7 to 9 inches from eyes
Lack peripheral vision of older child
Able to track movement within one day of birth
• Preference for moving objects
Vision
• Visual accommodation
– Self-adjustments made by eye lens to bring objects into focus
– Neonates show little or no visual accommodation
• Focus on objects 7 to 9 inches away
• Convergence
– Does not occur until 7 or 8 weeks
• Color perception
– At birth, cones are less well developed than rods
Convergence of the Eyes
Figure 4.5
Hearing
•
•
•
•
Fetuses respond to sound
Neonates respond to amplitude and pitch
Show preference for mothers’ voices
Responsive to sounds and rhythms of speech
– Show no preference for specific languages
Smell and Taste
• Smell
– Well-developed at birth
– Demonstrate aversion for noxious and preference for pleasant
odors
– Recognize familiar odors
• Taste
– Sensitive to different tastes
– Demonstrate facial expressions in response to tastes
– Prefer sweet tastes
Facial Expressions Elicited by
Sweet, Sour, and Bitter Solutions
Figure 4.6
Touch and Pain
• Touch
– Sensitive to touch
– Touch elicits many reflex behaviors
• Pain
– Past belief that neonates are not sensitive to pain
– Neonates not cognitively equipped to ruminate about pain
• Conditionable – distress when confronted with situation that
previously presented itself as painful
Can Neonates Learn?
• Classical Conditioning
– Involuntary responses are conditioned to a new stimuli
• Operant Conditioning
– Behavior (reflexes) are modified through reinforcement
– Requires rapid administration of reinforcers
– The Cat and the Hat study – modified sucking reflexes
A Neonate Sucking to Hear Her Mother’s Voice
Figure 4.7
What Patterns of Sleep Are Found Among Neonates?
• Neonates spend about 16 hours per day in sleep
– Typical infant has six cycles of waking and sleeping
• By 6 months, many infants begin to sleep through the night
• REM Sleep
– Neonates spend 50% time in REM sleep
– Decreases in percentage of REM
• 6 months – 30%
• 2 to 3 years – 20 to 25%
• Non-REM Sleep
– Four stages of sleep
• Neonates may utilize REM sleep to stimulate the brain
Why Do Babies Cry?
• Pain and discomfort
– Close physical contact most helpful maternal response
• Universal, expressive, and functional communication
– Expressive response to unpleasant feelings
– Stimulates caregiver response
• Distinct causes and patterns of cries
– Hunger, anger, pain
– Peaks of crying in late afternoon and early evening
• Crying produces physiological response in others
What Can I Do to Stop an Infant from Crying?
• Sucking serves as a built-in tranquilizer
– Pacifier, sweet solutions
• Soothing processes
– Pick baby up, patting, caressing, rocking them
– Speaking to them in low voice
What Is SIDS?
• Sudden Infant Death Syndrome – crib death
– Strikes while the baby is sleeping
– More common among babies between ages 2 and 4 months
• Reflexive behavior is weakening
– More common among babies who sleep on their stomachs
– Causes of SIDS remains obscure
• Children’s Hospital Boston Study
The Medulla
Figure 4.9
What Are the Risk Factors for SIDS?
• SIDS is most common among
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
babies aged 2 to 4 months
babies put to sleep on their stomach
premature and low-birth-weight babies
males
lower SES
African Americans
babies of teenage mothers
babies of mothers who smoked or used narcotics during pregnancy