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Mash/Wolfe Abnormal Child Psychology, 4th edition © 2009
Cengage Learning
 Defining
child abnormality is complex and
involves:


context of children’s ongoing adaptation and
development
sorting out the most probable cause of identified
problems
 Study
of abnormal child behavior requires an
understanding of developmental processes
and of individual and situational events that
can influence the course and direction of a
particular child
Mash/Wolfe Abnormal Child Psychology, 4th edition © 2009
Cengage Learning
Clinical and research activity begins with theoretical
formulations for guidance and information
 Theory: a language of science to facilitate
assembling and communicating knowledge
effectively
 Theories allow us to predict behavior based on
samples of knowledge
 Etiology: the study of the causes of childhood
disorders; considers how biological, psychological,
and environmental processes interact to produce
outcomes over time
 Multiple, interactive causes—rather than onedimensional models—help in understanding the
complexity of disorders

Mash/Wolfe Abnormal Child Psychology, 4th edition © 2009
Cengage Learning
 Underlying


Assumptions
Abnormal development is multiply determined
Children and their environments are interdependent
and interact dynamically (the “transactional” view)

Children and environments are active contributors to
behavior
 both contribute to expression of a disorder
 one cannot be separated from the other
Mash/Wolfe Abnormal Child Psychology, 4th edition © 2009
Cengage Learning
 Underlying

Assumptions (cont.)
Development involves continuities and discontinuities


Continuity: developmental changes are gradual and
quantitative; predictive of future behavior patterns
Discontinuity: developmental changes are abrupt and
qualitative; not predictive of future behavior patterns
Mash/Wolfe Abnormal Child Psychology, 4th edition © 2009
Cengage Learning
 An



Integrative Approach
No single theoretical orientation can explain
various behaviors or disorders
Each theory contributes one or more pieces of
the puzzle of atypical development
Abnormal child behavior is best studied from a
multi-theoretical perspective
Mash/Wolfe Abnormal Child Psychology, 4th edition © 2009
Cengage Learning


Adaptational failure is the failure to master or progress in
accomplishing developmental milestones
Organization of Development
 Early patterns of adaptation evolve over time with
structure and transform into higher-order functions
 Implies an active, dynamic process of continual change and
transformation
 Sensitive periods are windows of time during which
environmental influences on development are enhanced
 Development is a process of increasing differentiation and
integration and proceeds in an organized, hierarchical
manner
 current abilities or limitations are influenced by prior
accomplishments
 each change influences further developmental success or
failure
Mash/Wolfe Abnormal Child Psychology, 4th edition © 2009
Cengage Learning
 Developmental




Psychopathology Perspective
An approach to describing and studying disorders of
childhood, adolescence, and beyond in a way that
stresses the importance of developmental processes
and tasks
Emphasizes developmental processes, context, and
influence of multiple and interacting events to shape
adaptive and maladaptive development
To understand maladaptive behavior, one must view
it in relation to what is considered normative
Multidisciplinary
Mash/Wolfe Abnormal Child Psychology, 4th edition © 2009
Cengage Learning
Neurobiological perspective: Sees brain and nervous
system functions as underlying causes of
psychological disorders
 An overabundance of neurons develops during
embryonic period

initially undifferentiated
as they reach their destinations they become specialized
and carry electrical signals to other parts of the brain
 synapses (axonal connections) form the brain’s circuits
and lay foundation for further growth and differentiation



Selective pruning reduces the number of connections
that shape and differentiate important brain
functions
Mash/Wolfe Abnormal Child Psychology, 4th edition © 2009
Cengage Learning
 Neural


Plasticity and the Role of Experience:
the brain shows neural plasticity (i.e., malleability,
or use-dependent anatomical differentiation)
throughout the course of development
experience plays critical role in brain development,
with transaction occurring between ongoing brain
development and environmental experiences



prenatal environment
childhood illness and diet
early caregiving, including maltreatment, inadequate
stimulation, attachment
Mash/Wolfe Abnormal Child Psychology, 4th edition © 2009
Cengage Learning

Neural Plasticity and the Role of Experience (cont.)


Maturation of the brain is an organized, hierarchical
process with brain structures changing and growing
throughout the life span
As the brain is shaped by early experiences, consequences
of traumatic experience may be difficult to change
Mash/Wolfe Abnormal Child Psychology, 4th edition © 2009
Cengage Learning
 Genetic



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
Contributions:
Each person’s unique genome (approximately
30,000 genes) is established at conception
Each parent contributes 22 matched pairs of
chromosomes and a single pair of sex
chromosomes (XY=male, XX=female)
Some genetic factors show up early in life, others
show up later
Expression of genetic influences is malleable and
responsive to social environment
Rarely is one gene a single cause of a disorder
Genes influence how we respond to environment
Mash/Wolfe Abnormal Child Psychology, 4th edition © 2009
Cengage Learning


Behavioral genetics investigates possible
connections between genetic predisposition and
observed behavior
Molecular genetics methods directly assess the
association between variations in DNA sequences
and variations in particular traits



Identifying a specific gene for a disorder addresses
only a small part of genetic risk
Genetic influences are probabilistic, not deterministic
Most forms of abnormal behavior are polygenic: many
susceptibility genes interacting with each other and
with environmental influences
Mash/Wolfe Abnormal Child Psychology, 4th edition © 2009
Cengage Learning
 Neurobiological

Contributions:
Brain structure and function:


Different areas of the brain regulate different functions
and behaviors
Brain stem handles autonomic functions necessary to stay
alive
 Hindbrain: medulla, pons, and cerebellum
 Midbrain coordinates movement with sensory input;
contains reticular activating system (RAS)
 Diencephalon: thalamus and hypothalamus regulate
behavior and emotion
Mash/Wolfe Abnormal Child Psychology, 4th edition © 2009
Cengage Learning
 Neurobiological

Contributions (cont.)
Forebrain has evolved into highly specialized
functions for humans

Limbic system regulates emotional experiences and
expressions
 plays a significant role in learning and impulse control
 regulates basic drives of sex, aggression, hunger, and
thirst
Mash/Wolfe Abnormal Child Psychology, 4th edition © 2009
Cengage Learning

Neurobiological Contributions (cont.)
 Forebrain (cont.)
 Basal ganglia regulate, organize, and filter information
related to cognition, emotions, mood and motor
function; associated with ADHD, motor behaviors, and
OCD
 Cerebral cortex is the largest part of the forebrain
 allows us to plan, reason, and create
 divided into left hemisphere (verbal and other
cognitive processes) and right hemisphere (social
perception and creativity)
 New growth and restructuring during adolescence and early
adulthood results in maturation of temporal, parietal, and
frontal lobes
 Frontal lobes important for thinking and reasoning
abilities
 Frontal lobe functions help us make sense of social
relationships and customs
Mash/Wolfe Abnormal Child Psychology, 4th edition © 2009
Cengage Learning
 Neurobiological

contributions (cont.)
The Endocrine System, an important regulatory
system, is linked to anxiety and mood disorders


Endocrine glands produce hormones
 adrenal glands produce epinephrine and cortisol
 thyroid gland produces thyroxine
 pituitary gland produces regulatory hormones like
estrogen and testosterone
Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis has been
implicated in several disorders, especially anxiety and
mood disorders
Mash/Wolfe Abnormal Child Psychology, 4th edition © 2009
Cengage Learning
 Neurobiological

contributions (cont.)
Neurotransmitters make biochemical connections
between different parts of the brain


Neurons more sensitive to a particular neurotransmitter,
such as serotonin, cluster together and form brain circuits-paths from one part of the brain to another
Neurotransmitters most commonly implicated in
psychopathology include serotonin, benzodiazepine-GABA,
norepinephrine, and dopamine
Mash/Wolfe Abnormal Child Psychology, 4th edition © 2009
Cengage Learning

Emotional Influences:
 Emotions and affective expression
 are core elements of human psychological experience
 are a central feature of infant activity and regulation
 alert us to danger/ensure our safety
 tell us what to pay attention to/what to ignore
 affect quality of social interactions and relationships
 are important for internal monitoring and guidance
 provide motivation for action
 Emotions, a primary form of communication for young children, help
them explore their world and become independent
Mash/Wolfe Abnormal Child Psychology, 4th edition © 2009
Cengage Learning
 Emotional

Influences (cont.)
Emotion Reactivity and Regulation


Emotion reactivity: individual differences in the
threshold and intensity of emotional experience
Emotion regulation: involves enhancing, maintaining,
or inhibiting emotional arousal
 Problems in regulation: weak or absent control
structures
 Problems in dysregulation: existing control
structures operate maladaptively; may be adaptive
in some situations but not others
Mash/Wolfe Abnormal Child Psychology, 4th edition © 2009
Cengage Learning
 Emotional

Influences (cont.)
Temperament and Early Personality Styles


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Temperament: an organized style of behavior that appears
early in development and shapes an individual’s approach
to his or her environment and vice versa
Three primary dimensions
 positive affect and approach
 fearful or inhibited
 negative affect or irritability
Empirical evidence links early behavioral styles to adult
personality characteristics
Mash/Wolfe Abnormal Child Psychology, 4th edition © 2009
Cengage Learning
 Behavioral


and Cognitive Influences:
The child is best understood by behavior in a
particular situation
Applied Behavior Analysis (ABA) explains behavior
as a function of its antecedents and
consequences

Four primary operant learning principles:
 positive reinforcement
 negative reinforcement
 extinction
 punishment
Mash/Wolfe Abnormal Child Psychology, 4th edition © 2009
Cengage Learning
 Behavioral


and Cognitive Influences (cont.)
Classical conditioning explains the acquisition of
problem behavior in terms of paired associations
between previously neutral stimuli and
unconditioned stimuli
Social learning, in addition to overt behaviors,
also considers the influence of cognitive
mediators, affect, and contextual variables in
the etiology and maintenance of behaviors

social cognition relates to how children think about
themselves and others
Mash/Wolfe Abnormal Child Psychology, 4th edition © 2009
Cengage Learning
 Social




and environmental contexts
Proximal (close by) and distal (further removed) events
Shared/Nonshared environments
shared environment: environmental factors that produce
similarities in developmental outcomes among siblings in the
same family
non-shared environment: environmental factors that produce
behavioral differences among sibings in the same family
 Bronfenbrenner’s

ecological model
Describes the child’s environment as a series of nested
and interconnected structures with the child at the
center
Mash/Wolfe Abnormal Child Psychology, 4th edition © 2009
Cengage Learning
 Infant-Caregiver
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Attachment
Bowlby developed theory of attachment by
integrating aspects of evolutionary biology with
psychodynamic conceptions of early experiences
Attachment:The process of establishing and
maintaining an emotional bond with parents or
other significant individuals
An ongoing process beginning between 6-12
months of age
The evolving child-caregiver relationship helps
the child to regulate behavior and emotions,
especially in conditions of threat or stress
Mash/Wolfe Abnormal Child Psychology, 4th edition © 2009
Cengage Learning
 Infant-Caregiver

Four patterns of attachment, which reflect different
types of internal working models, have been
identified:





Attachment (cont.)
secure (helps child develop self-reliance)
anxious-avoidant
anxious-resistant
disorganized
The child’s internal working model of relationships
comes from his or her initial crucial relationship and
is carried forward into later relationships
Mash/Wolfe Abnormal Child Psychology, 4th edition © 2009
Cengage Learning
 The

Child psychopathology research has increasingly
focused on the role of:






Family and Peer Context
the family system
the complex relationships within families
the reciprocal influences among various family
subsystems
processes that occur within disturbed families and how
these processes affect individual family members and
subsystems
Subsystems receiving most attention involve roles
of mother-child and the marital couple
Less attention given to roles of siblings and
fathers
Mash/Wolfe Abnormal Child Psychology, 4th edition © 2009
Cengage Learning
 The



Family and Peer Context (cont.)
Family systems theorists argue that
understanding or predicting the behavior of a
particular family member cannot be done in
isolation from other family members.
The study of individual factors and the study of
the child’s context are mutually compatible and
beneficial to both theory and intervention
How the family deals with typical and atypical
stress is crucial to children’s adjustment and
adaptation


opportunity for change, growth, reorganization
outcome depends on nature/severity of stress, family
functioning, family’s coping skills
Mash/Wolfe Abnormal Child Psychology, 4th edition © 2009
Cengage Learning