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INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY
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CHAPTER EIGHT:
MOTIVATION AND EMOTION
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Explaining Motivation
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How does motivation direct and energize
behavior?
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Motivation
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Factors that direct and energize the
behavior of humans and other organisms
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Instinct Approaches
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Instincts
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Inborn patterns of behavior that are
biologically determined rather than learned
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Psychologists do not agree on what, or how many,
primary instincts exist
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Drive-Reduction Approaches
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Suggest that a lack of some basic
biological requirement such as water
produces a drive to obtain that
requirement
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Drive
Motivation tension, or arousal, that energize
behavior to fulfill a need
 Primary
 Secondary
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Arousal Approaches
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Seek to explain behavior in which the goal
is to maintain or increase excitement
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People vary widely in the optimal level of
arousal they seek out
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Incentive Approaches
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Suggest that motivation stems from the
desire to obtain valued external goals, or
incentives
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Many psychologists believe that the internal
drives proposed by drive-reduction theory
work in tandem with the external incentives of
incentive theory to “push” and “pull” behavior
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Cognitive Approaches
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Suggest that motivation is a product of
people’s thoughts, expectations, and goals
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Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
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Suggests that before more sophisticated,
higher-order needs can be met, certain
primary needs must be satisfied
Abraham Maslow
 Self-actualization
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State of self-fulfillment in which people realize their
highest potential
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Maslow’s Pyramid
Figure 1 of Chapter 8
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Human Needs and Motivation
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What biological and social factors underlie
hunger?
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What are the varieties of sexual behavior?
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How are needs relating to achievement,
affiliation, and power motivation exhibited?
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Hunger and Eating
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Obesity
¼ of people in the United States
 Body Mass Index (BMI)
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Based on ratio of weight to height
 BMI > 30 is considered obese
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Biological Factors in the
Regulation of Hunger
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Hypothalamus
Monitors glucose levels
 Lateral hypothalamus
 Ventromedial hypothalamus
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Weight Set Point
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Metabolism
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Social Factors in Eating
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Societal Rules
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Cultural Influences
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Individual Habits
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Operant Conditioning
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Associating food with comfort and consolation
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The Roots of Obesity
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Oversensitivity to external eating cues
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Insensitivity to internal hunger cues
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Higher weight set points
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Leptin
Rate of weight gain during the first four
months of life is related to being
overweight during later childhood
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Eating Disorders
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Anorexia Nervosa
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Refusal to eat while denying one’s behavior
and appearance are unusual
Bulimia
Disorder in which people binge on large
quantities of food
 Purging
 Exercise bulimia
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Losing Weight Successfully
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There is no easy
route to weight control
Keep track of what
you eat and what you
weigh
Eat “big” foods
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Bulky and heavy but
low in calories
Cut out television
Exercise
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Decrease the
influence of external,
social stimuli on your
eating behavior
Avoid fad diets
Avoid taking diet pills
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There is no magic pill
Maintain good eating
habits
Set reasonable goals
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Sexual Motivation
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Androgens
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Male sex hormones
Estrogens and
Progesterone
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Female sex hormones
Figure 2 of Chapter 8
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Sexual Motivation
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Ovulation
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When an egg is released from the ovaries,
making the chances of fertilization by a sperm
cell higher
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Sexual Motivation
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Masturbation: Solitary Sex
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Sexual self-stimulation, often using the hand
to rub the genitals
Heterosexuality
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Sexual attraction and behavior directed to the
other sex
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Sexual Motivation
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Premarital Sex
Double standard
 Dramatic change in public opinion
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Marital Sex
Frequency varies
 Extramarital sex
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Sexual Motivation
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Homosexuality
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Sexually attracted to members of the same
sex
Gay
 Lesbian
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Bisexuality
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Sexually attracted to people of the same sex
and the other sex
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Sexual Motivation
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Transsexualism
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Transsexuals
One’s gender identity does not match their
physical sex
 Some seek sex-change operations
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Transgenderism
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Transsexuals and people who view themselves as
a third gender, transvestites, or others who believe
that traditional male-female gender classification
inadequately characterizes themselves
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The Needs for Achievement,
Affiliation, and Power
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The Need for Achievement
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Stable, learned characteristic in which a
person obtains satisfaction by striving for and
attaining a level of excellence
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The Needs for Achievement,
Affiliation, and Power
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The Need for Affiliation
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An interest in establishing and maintaining
relationships with other people
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Gender is a strong determinant of how much time
is spent with friends
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The Needs for Achievement,
Affiliation, and Power
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The Need for Power
Tendency to seek control or influence over
others and to be seen as a powerful individual
 More apt to belong to organizations and seek
office
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Understanding Emotional
Experiences
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What are emotions, and how do we
experience them?
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What are the functions of emotions?
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What are the explanations for emotions?
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How does nonverbal behavior relate to the
expression of emotions?
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Understanding Emotional
Experiences
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Emotions
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Feelings that generally have both
physiological and cognitive elements and that
influence behavior
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The Functions of Emotions
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Preparing us for action
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Shaping our future behavior
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Helping us interact more effectively with
others
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Determining the Range of
Emotions
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There are various ways of categorizing
emotions
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Most researchers suggest that basic
emotions include:
Happiness
 Anger
 Fear
 Sadness
 Disgust
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Determining the Range of
Emotions
Hierarchy of Emotions
Figure 3 of Chapter 8
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The Roots of Emotions
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The James-Lange Theory
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Proposes that we experience emotions as a
result of physiological changes that produce
specific sensations; the brain interprets these
sensations as specific kinds of emotional
experiences
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The Roots of Emotions
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The Cannon-Bard Theory
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Assumes that both physiological arousal and
the emotional experience are produced
simultaneously by the same nerve stimulus,
which emanates from the thalamus in the
brain
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The Roots of Emotions
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The Schachter-Singer Theory
Emphasizes that we identify the emotion we
are experiencing by observing our
environment and comparing ourselves with
others
 Supports a cognitive view of emotions
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The Roots of Emotion
A Comparison of Three Models of Emotion
Figure 4 of Chapter 8
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The Roots of Emotions
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Making Sense of the Multiple Perspectives
on Emotion
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Emotions are such complex phenomena,
encompassing both biological and cognitive
aspects, that no single theory has been able
to explain fully all the facets of emotional
experience
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Cultural Differences in
Expression of Emotion
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Facial-Affect Program
Assumed to be universally present at birth
 Analogous to a computer program that is
turned on when a particular emotion is
experienced
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Displays an appropriate expression
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Cultural Differences in
Expression of Emotion
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Facial-Feedback Hypothesis
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Not only reflects emotional experience, but
also helps determine how people experience
and label emotions
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Some theoreticians have suggested that facial
expressions are necessary for an emotion to be
experienced
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