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LEARNING
Resource Material By
Prof Namita Gupta
What Is Learning?
Learning is a relatively
permanent change in human
capabilities that is not a result
of growth processes.
Learning - any process through
which experience at one time
can alter an individual’s
behavior at a future time
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Learning
Any relatively permanent change in behavior that
occurs as a result of experience
•Learning components:
Involves
Change
Is
Relatively
Permanent
Is Acquired
Through
Experience
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Theories of Learning
 Classical Conditioning
A type of conditioning in which an individual
responds to some stimulus that would not
ordinarily produce such a response.
 Operant Conditioning + Reinforcement theory
A type of conditioning in which desired voluntary
behavior leads to a reward or prevents a
punishment.
 Social-Learning Theory
People can learn through
observation and direct experience.
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What’s this about
LEARNING?
Classical Conditioning- its history
Pavlov’s Dogs-Digestive reflexes and
salivation, Psychic secretion
Classical Conditioning
NEUTRAL STIMULUS
will
elicit
NO REACTION
UNCONDITIONED STIMULUS
will
elicit a
REFLEX ACTION
will
elicit a
REFLEX ACTION
will
elicit a
CONDITIONED
RESPONSE
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UNCONDITIONED STIMULUS
NEUTRAL STIMULUS
CONDITIONED
CONDITIONEDSTIMULUS
STIMULUS
Stimulus
1-Neutral Stimulus-Bell-Does not normally elicit a
response or reflex action by itself
A bell ringing,
2-Unconditioned Stimulus—Food
Always elicits a reflex action: an unconditioned
response
Food,
3-Unconditioned Response—Salivation
A response to an unconditioned stimulus—
naturally occurring
Salivation at smell of food,
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STIMULUS _Cont
After learning took place
4-Conditioned Stimulus—Bell
The stimulus that was originally neutral
becomes conditioned after it has been paired
with the unconditioned stimulus. Will elicit
the unconditioned response by itself
5-Conditioned Response
The original unconditioned response
becomes conditioned after it has been
elicited by the neutral stimulus
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Operant Conditioning
Operant conditioning takes place all around
us in our homes, as well as the workplace.
Parents use rewards, or operant conditioning
to get their children to do their homework.
• Type of learning in which behavior is
strengthened if followed by reinforcement or
diminished if followed by punishment
HISTORY OF OPERANT CONDITIONING
• Famous behavioral psychologist, followed Thorndike in
using animals to investigate operant conditioning.
• Skinner Box: constructed a box with a lever insidewhen an animal pressed the lever, a food pellet fell out
of a feeder into the box, Skinner wanted to see if rats
placed in the box could learn to press the lever in order
to receive the food.
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SKINNER‘s Experiment
 Behaviorism -The attempt to understand observable
activity in terms of observable stimuli and observable
responses
 Early Operant Conditioning- learning in which
voluntary response are controlled by consequences
by John B. Watson (1913),B.F. Skinner (1938)-used
rats
First Trial
in Box
Situation:
stimuli
inside of
puzzle box
Scratch at bars
Push at ceiling
Dig at floor
Howl
Etc.
Etc.
Press lever
After Many
Trials in Box
Situation:
stimuli
inside of
puzzle box
Scratch at bars
Push at ceiling
Dig at floor
Howl
Etc.
Etc.
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Press lever
Learning-Operant Conditioning
Insert Figure 3.12 Here
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Reinforcement Theory
It used the fundamental of operant theory in practical practice
 Emphasizes that people are motivated to
perfor or avoid certain behaviors because of
past outcomes that have resulted from those
behaviors
 Response consequences that increase
likelihood of responding in a similar way
again.
positive reinforcement
negative reinforcement
Punishment
extinction
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Shaping: A Managerial Tool
Systematically reinforcing each successive step that
moves an individual closer to the desired response.
Four Methods of Shaping Behavior:
Positive reinforcement
Providing a reward for a desired behavior
(learning)
Negative reinforcement
Removing an unpleasant consequence when the
desired behavior occurs (learning)
Punishment
Applying an undesirable condition to eliminate
an undesirable behavior (“unlearning”)
Extinction
Withholding reinforcement of a behavior to
cause its cessation (“unlearning”)
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Reinforcement- Consequences of
behaviour
 Positive reinforcement: An event’s presentation following a
response increases the future probability of that response. ExPraising for a good sales performance by the boss.
 Negative reinforcement: An event’s removal following a
response increases the future probability of that response. Ex –
Reduction or elimination of the future supervision/ Scolding by
the boss after responsible work performances from employees.
 Punishment- The process by which a stimulus or event
weakens or reduces the probability of the response that it
follows. Ex-Beating to a thief after being caught by the police.
 Extinction-Making one forget the present response. Ex- Lack of
attention paid by colleagues on another salesman who makes
jokes over customers
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Schedule of Reinforcement-when &how
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Schedules of Reinforcement
 Two Major Types:
Continuous Reinforcement- A desired behavior is
reinforced each time it is demonstrated- EX 1 to
1 ratio, a prize every time
Intermittent Reinforcement-A desired behavior is
reinforced often enough to make the behavior
worth repeating but not every time it is
demonstrated or in Multiple frequencies
 Ex- Ratio
fixed: 1prize for each race
Variable: maybe a prize, maybe not!
Interval
fixed: announced examination after every 1
month
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variable: pop quiz any time
Types of Intermittent Reinforcement
 Ratio
Depends on the number of
responses made.
 Interval
Depends on the time between
reinforcements.
 Fixed
Rewards are spaced at uniform
time intervals or after a set
number of responses.
 Variable
Rewards that are unpredictable or
that vary relative to the behavior.
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Schedules of Reinforcement
Fixed-ratio
E X H I B I T 2–3
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Reinforcement Contingencies-EX
Insert Table 3.4 Here
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Classical vs. Operant
Conditioning
CLASSICAL
 Stimulus precedes
the response and
elicits it
 Elicited responses
 Learning as a
result of
association
 Pavlov
OPERANT
 Stimulus follows
the response and
strengthens it
 Emitted responses
 Learning as a
result of
consequences
 Skinner
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The Basic Concepts of Learning
Theory
Classical conditioning
elicits response as a result of associating
unconditioned stimulus
neutral stimulus
Operant conditioning
emitted response
learning is a result of consequences
reinforcers
punishment
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Processes of Social Learning
Theory
Attention
Retention
Motor
Reproduction
• Model Stimuli
• Coding
• Physical Capability
• Trainee
• Organization
• Accuracy
• Characteristics
• Rehearsal
• Feedback
Match
Modeled
Performance
Motivational
Processes
• Reinforcement
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Learning
Observational Learning
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Social Learning Theory
(1 of 3)
Emphasizes that people learn by observing
other persons (models) whom they believe
are credible and knowledgeable
Recognizes that behavior that is reinforced
or rewarded tends to be repeated
The models’ behavior or skill that is
rewarded is adopted by the observer
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Social Learning Theory
(2 of 3)
Learning new skills or behavior comes from:
directly experiencing the consequences of using
behavior or skills, or
the process of observing others and seeing the
consequences of their behavior
Learning is also influenced by a person’s
self-efficacy
self-efficacy – a person’s judgment about
whether he or she can successfully learn
knowledge and skills
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Social Learning Theory
(3 of 3)
Self-efficacy can be increased using:
verbal persuasion – offering words of
encouragement to convince others they can
learn
logical verification – perceiving a
relationship between a new task and a task
already mastered
observation of others (modeling) – having
employees who already have mastered the
learning outcomes demonstrate them for
trainees
past accomplishments – allowing employees
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to build a history of successful
The Learning Process:
Learning Styles
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Application of learning in
Behavior Modification (OB Mod)
The application of reinforcement concepts to
individuals in the work setting
•Follows the Five-Step Problem-Solving Model
1
• Identify critical behaviors
2
• Develop baseline data
3
• Identify behavioral consequences
4
• Develop and apply intervention
5
• Evaluate performance improvement
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Assignment: Experiential question to be
discussed after studying the topic
 Do you think manager will be able to more effectively change
their subordinate’s performance by using rewards or by using
punishment?
 However you answer what specific steps you would take to
make these efforts most effective.Explain your
recommendations.
Good Luck
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