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Review for Final Same group studied Longitudinal at different times CrossSectional Sequential Differing groups studied at the same time Several similar crosssectional or longitudinal studies at varying times Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Figure 1.7 Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Id Ego Superego Largest portion of the mind Unconscious, present at birth Source of biological needs/desires Conscious, rational part of mind Emerges in early infancy Redirects id impulses acceptably The conscience Develops from ages 3 to 6 from interactions with caregivers Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Classical Conditioning Stimulus– response Operant Conditioning Reinforcers and punishments Social Learning Modeling Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Classical Operant Stimulus – Stimulus pairing Stimulus – Response Consequence pairing Subject doesn’t control Sequence of events events – responses elicited contingent upon actions of subject – responses emitted Experimenter shapes response Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Learning Theories Ivan Pavlov ◦ Classical Conditioning Reflex Stimulus – Response connection Unlearned Unconditioned Stimulus elicits Unconditioned Response Food automatically elicits Salivation Learned Conditioned Stimulus elicits Conditioned Response Sound of tone (paired with bacon) elicits Salivation Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Learning Theories B.F. Skinner ◦ Operant Conditioning Behaviors are dependent on “Reinforcement” Positive Reinforcement Add something pleasant Increased chance behavior occurs again Negative Reinforcement learning that occurs when behavior causes something unpleasant to stop Punishment adds something unpleasant Omission Removes something pleasant Dominant–recessive pattern Dominant genes always express their characteristics Recessive genes come in pairs to express their characteristics Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Figure 2.3 Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Heritability Estimates Portion of individual differences attributable to genetics Ranges from 0 to 1.00 Kinship Studies Concordance What percent of the time do family members/twins show a trait? Ranges from 0 to 100% Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Passive correlation Evocative correlation Active correlation niche-picking Absolute Family Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Figure 2.10 Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Germinal, Embryo, Fetus Period Length Zygote Embryo Fetus Key Events Fertilization 2 weeks Implantation Start of placenta Arms, legs, face, organs, muscles all develop 6 weeks Heart begins beating 30 weeks “Growth and finishing” Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Drugs ◦ prescription ◦ nonprescription ◦ illegal Tobacco Alcohol Radiation Pollution Absolute Family Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Figure 3.2 Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Dose Heredity Other negative influences Age at time of exposure RubberBall Productions Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. When mother is anorexic during pregnancy: this leads to brain impairment A change from one generation to the next in an aspect of development, such as body size or pubertal timing ◦ NA adults are taller than ancestors ◦ Puberty happening earlier New motor skills as reorganizations of previously mastered skills, which leads to more effective ways of exploring and controlling the environment Join product of CNS development, body’s movement possibilities, environmental supports and child’s goal Max heart rate is lower in your 60s compared to in your 20s Nativism Speech perception ◦ Becomes more specific in infancy, esp. with regard to recognizing sounds from non-native languages Slower dark adaptation with age Adaptation ◦ building schemes through direct interaction with environment Assimilation ◦ equilibrium ◦ using current schemes to interpret external world Accommodation ◦ disequilibrium ◦ adjusting old schemes and creating new ones to better fit environment Organization ◦ internal rearranging and linking schemes Photodisc Reflexive schemes Birth–1 month Newborn reflexes Primary circular reactions 1–4 months Simple motor habits centered around own body Secondary circular reactions 4–8 months Repeat interesting effects in surroundings Coordination of secondary circular reactions 8–12 months Intentional, goal-directed behavior; object permanence Tertiary circular reactions 12–18 months Explore properties of objects through novel actions Mental representation 18 months–2 years Internal depictions of objects or events; deferred imitation Co pyr igh t© 20 10 Pe ars on Ed uc ati on, Inc . All Ri ght s Re ser ve d. Centration ◦ focus on one aspect and neglect others Irreversibility ◦ cannot mentally reverse a set of steps Figure 7.8 Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Preschoolers do not use: ◦ rehearsal ◦ organization ◦ elaboration Preschoolers use: ◦ scripts ◦ greater elaboration with age Absolute Family Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Fluid vs. Crystallized Flynn effect ◦ Rise in IQ stores Race can not predict IQ Semantics vs. pragmatics Over and underextension an individual's need to meet realistic goals, receive feedback and experience a sense of accomplishment Affected more by social context than aging alone Erikson vs. Freud social influences vs. rational ego Midlife Crisis Level of Exploration Level of Commitment High Low High identity achievement moratorium Low identity foreclosure identity diffusion Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Gender role stereotyping Androgyny shift Dodge Social Information-Processing Model ◦ Teens who commit violent antisocial acts have trouble interpreting and processing social cues Preconventional Stage 1: Punishment and obedience level Stage 2: Instrumental purpose Conventional level Stage 3: “Good boy–good girl” (morality of interpersonal cooperation) Stage 4: Social-order-maintaining Postconventional Stage 5: Social contract or principled Stage 6: Universal ethical principle level Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Ainsworth’s strange situation – 60% Avoidant – 15% Resistant – 10% Secure Disorganized/ disoriented Attachment – 15% standards defined by culture RubberBall Productions Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Disengagement Mutual withdrawal of elders and society Theory Social barriers cause declining Activity Theory interaction Continuity Theory Strive to maintain consistency between past and future Social networks become more selective Socioemotional with age; extends lifelong process Selectivity • Emphasize emotion-regulating Theory functions of social contact Acceptance Involvement Control Autonomy Authoritative high high adaptive appropriate Authoritarian low low high low Permissive high too low or too high low high Uninvolved low low low indifference Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. “Sandwich generation” Caring for both own children and aging parents in mid-life Theory of mind deficits Extensive brain growth during first year after birth that results in improperly interconnected neurons Adolescence heightened vulnerability Alzheimer's ◦ First sign – learning and remembering verbal material Hayflick Limit ◦ Number of times a cell can divide itself Parkes/Bowlby model of Bereavement grieving adults are like infants in separation anxiety Stages: shock and numbness yearning and searching disorganization and despair reorganization