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Same group studied
Longitudinal
at different times
CrossSectional
Sequential
Differing groups studied at
the same time
Several similar crosssectional or longitudinal
studies at varying times
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Figure 1.7
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
Id



Ego



Superego

Largest portion of the mind
Unconscious, present at birth
Source of biological needs/desires
Conscious, rational part of mind
Emerges in early infancy
Redirects id impulses acceptably
The conscience
Develops from ages 3 to 6 from
interactions with caregivers
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Classical
Conditioning
Stimulus–
response
Operant
Conditioning
Reinforcers and
punishments
Social Learning
Modeling
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Classical
Operant
Stimulus – Stimulus
pairing
Stimulus – Response Consequence pairing
Subject doesn’t control
Sequence of events
events – responses elicited contingent upon actions of
subject – responses emitted
Experimenter shapes
response
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Bacon 2007
Learning Theories

Ivan Pavlov
◦ Classical Conditioning
 Reflex
 Stimulus – Response connection
 Unlearned
 Unconditioned Stimulus elicits Unconditioned Response
 Food automatically elicits Salivation
 Learned
 Conditioned Stimulus elicits Conditioned Response
 Sound of tone (paired with bacon) elicits Salivation
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Bacon 2007
Learning Theories

B.F. Skinner
◦ Operant Conditioning
 Behaviors are dependent on “Reinforcement”
 Positive Reinforcement
 Add something pleasant
 Increased chance behavior occurs again
Negative Reinforcement
 learning that occurs when behavior causes something
unpleasant to stop
 Punishment
 adds something unpleasant
 Omission
 Removes something pleasant
 Dominant–recessive
pattern
Dominant genes always express their
characteristics
Recessive genes come in pairs to express their
characteristics
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Bacon 2007
Figure 2.3
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Copyright © Allyn &
Bacon 2007
Heritability Estimates
Portion of individual
differences
attributable to
genetics
Ranges from
0 to 1.00
Kinship Studies
Concordance
What percent of
the time do
family
members/twins
show a trait?
Ranges from
0 to 100%
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Passive correlation
Evocative
correlation
Active correlation
 niche-picking
Absolute Family
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Figure 2.10
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Germinal, Embryo, Fetus
Period Length
Zygote
Embryo
Fetus
Key Events
 Fertilization
2 weeks  Implantation
 Start of placenta
 Arms, legs, face, organs,
muscles all develop
6 weeks
 Heart begins beating
30 weeks  “Growth and finishing”
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Drugs
◦ prescription
◦ nonprescription
◦ illegal
Tobacco
Alcohol
Radiation
Pollution
Absolute Family
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Figure 3.2
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Dose
Heredity
Other
negative influences
Age at time of exposure
RubberBall Productions
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
When mother is anorexic during pregnancy:
this leads to brain impairment

A change from one generation to the next in
an aspect of development, such as body size
or pubertal timing
◦ NA adults are taller than ancestors
◦ Puberty happening earlier


New motor skills as reorganizations of
previously mastered skills, which leads to
more effective ways of exploring and
controlling the environment
Join product of CNS development, body’s
movement possibilities, environmental
supports and child’s goal

Max heart rate is lower in your 60s compared
to in your 20s


Nativism
Speech perception
◦ Becomes more specific in infancy, esp. with regard
to recognizing sounds from non-native languages

Slower dark adaptation with age
Adaptation
◦ building schemes through direct interaction
with environment
Assimilation
◦ equilibrium
◦ using current schemes to interpret external
world
Accommodation
◦ disequilibrium
◦ adjusting old schemes and creating new
ones to better fit environment
Organization
◦ internal rearranging and linking schemes
Photodisc
Reflexive schemes
Birth–1 month
Newborn reflexes
Primary circular
reactions
1–4 months
Simple motor habits centered around
own body
Secondary circular
reactions
4–8 months
Repeat interesting effects in
surroundings
Coordination of
secondary circular
reactions
8–12 months
Intentional, goal-directed behavior;
object permanence
Tertiary circular
reactions
12–18 months
Explore properties of objects through
novel actions
Mental
representation
18 months–2 years
Internal depictions of objects or
events; deferred imitation
Co
pyr
igh
t©
20
10
Pe
ars
on
Ed
uc
ati
on,
Inc
.
All
Ri
ght
s
Re
ser
ve
d.
Centration
◦ focus on one
aspect and neglect
others
Irreversibility
◦ cannot mentally
reverse a set of
steps
Figure 7.8
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

Preschoolers do not
use:
◦ rehearsal
◦ organization
◦ elaboration
Preschoolers use:
◦ scripts
◦ greater elaboration
with age
Absolute Family
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

Fluid vs. Crystallized
Flynn effect
◦ Rise in IQ stores

Race can not predict IQ


Semantics vs. pragmatics
Over and underextension

an individual's need to meet realistic goals,
receive feedback and experience a sense of
accomplishment
Affected more by social context than aging
alone
Erikson vs. Freud
social influences vs. rational ego
 Midlife Crisis

Level of Exploration
Level of Commitment
High
Low
High
identity
achievement
moratorium
Low
identity
foreclosure
identity diffusion
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

Gender role stereotyping
Androgyny shift

Dodge Social Information-Processing Model
◦ Teens who commit violent antisocial acts have
trouble interpreting and processing social cues
Preconventional Stage 1: Punishment and obedience
level
Stage 2: Instrumental purpose
Conventional
level
Stage 3: “Good boy–good girl” (morality
of interpersonal cooperation)
Stage 4: Social-order-maintaining
Postconventional Stage 5: Social contract
or principled
Stage 6: Universal ethical principle
level
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Ainsworth’s
strange situation
– 60%
Avoidant – 15%
Resistant – 10%
Secure
Disorganized/

disoriented
Attachment
– 15%
standards
defined by culture
RubberBall Productions
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Disengagement
Mutual withdrawal of elders and society
Theory
Social barriers cause declining
Activity Theory
interaction
Continuity
Theory
Strive to maintain consistency between
past and future
Social networks become more selective
Socioemotional
with age; extends lifelong process
Selectivity
• Emphasize emotion-regulating
Theory
functions of social contact
Acceptance
Involvement
Control
Autonomy
Authoritative
high
high
adaptive
appropriate
Authoritarian
low
low
high
low
Permissive
high
too low or too
high
low
high
Uninvolved
low
low
low
indifference
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

“Sandwich generation”
Caring for both own children and aging
parents in mid-life


Theory of mind deficits
Extensive brain growth during first year after
birth that results in improperly
interconnected neurons


Adolescence heightened vulnerability
Alzheimer's
◦ First sign – learning and remembering verbal
material

Hayflick Limit
◦ Number of times a cell can divide itself
Parkes/Bowlby model of Bereavement
grieving adults are like infants in separation
anxiety
Stages:
shock and numbness
yearning and searching
disorganization and despair
reorganization