Download Jews in America (Part 2)

Ellis H. Adler
AP US History, Period 1
Dr. Crichfield
1/07/10
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Many of Napoleon’s decrees were overturned

He granted citizenship ship to Jews but that was that was
overturned in many countries and Jews lost citizenship
 Many Jews converted so that they could keep their rights
 This made the Rabbi’s concerned
 One group felt that if they modernized Judaism that more Jews
would stay in the religion
 The reform movement was started in Germany
 There was still tension and many of the German Jews began to
immigrate to America, bringing Reform Judaism with them
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Between 1820 and 1860 German Jewish immigration
increased the American Jewish population from 10,000
–over 150,000.
The Reform movement in America was begun by
German Jews
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Reform Judaism in America began in South Carolina
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A movement for reform began to develop in several other locations.
The Reform movement has gone through many changes.
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People were not required to keep kosher or wear Kippa. (small cap on head), prayers were done in English or German, man
and women prayed together (they prayed in different areas in Orthodox). There were choirs and organs as part of the service.
In many ways, the service started to resemble a church. (Origins of Reform Judaism)
4. Over the years some Jewish laws were reinstated
Under the influence of Rabbi Isaac Mayer Cincinnati became an area with a strong Jewish reform
movement.
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At the beginning, in the 1880’s it was very radical.
It was felt that only Jewish laws that "elevate and sanctify our lives" should be accepted and customs and laws that are "not
adapted to the views and habits of modern civilization" should be rejected
Many traditional Jewish laws were tossed out
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A group of German Jews broke off from their synagogue to create their own congregation
In 1857 he wrote the first siddur, Jewish prayer book, that was edited for American Jews.
Found the Union of American Hebrew Congregations in 1873.-organized several synagogues together and was meant to
support Jewish education and be a support for the community.
Found Hebrew Union College in Cincinnati in 1875.
Found the Central Conference of American Rabbis-organization of rabbis.
Organizations were started by the Reform congregations that supported the Jewish community
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Educational Alliance on the Lower East Side of NY
The Young Men's Hebrew Association,
The American Jewish Committee
The Anti-Defamation League of B'nai Brith. (Jews in America, Our Story)
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The Jews, like many early Americans had individual views on slavery
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For the most part, Jews did not own slaves. Some southern Jews did participate in slavery but
many did not. A few Jewish merchants participated. The Jewish impact on the slavery trade was
not big.
Aaron Levy was a Jew from Pennsylvania
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He bought a female black slave named Rachael
He went back to Philadelphia with Rachael and immediately freed her
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Most Southern Jews did not speak out against slavery. Some believed in slavery and
others were afraid of prosecution.
The exception was Elias Levy ( no relation to Aaron) who was a Florida sugar planter.
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He gave her an education
Eventually the two married
He wrote, "A Plan for the Abolition of Slavery." It was not well received in the South.
Levy’s son was a slave owner. He left Judaism and changed his name to David Yulee. He became
the first Senator of American of Jewish heritage(but not practicing)
Judah P. Benjamin, was a slaveholder from Louisiana, in 1852. He was the first practicing
Jew to be elected to the senate. He was active during the Civil War
Philip J. Joachimson was a NY Jewish lawyer who won the first successful anti-slavery
prosecution
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Jews were involved in many aspects of
industry
They also helped finance industry
Many Jews rose to middle class
The larger Jewish influence on industry was in
the late 1800’s when there was a large influx of
Russian Jews
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The Constitution only had power over the federal government
and didn’t stop the states from religious discrimination
Until, 1877 Jews did not have full rights in all states
After the passage of the constitution, many states withdrew their
requirement of religious test oaths for holding political office but
some states did not
Maryland refused to change its requirements and this became a major area of
debate
 Jews were unsuccessful in their attempts to remove this law
 Thomas Kennedy tried to remove this law in 1818, but partisan politics kept
him from doing so
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The Christian Oath remained until the “Jew Bill” was passed in
1826
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Jew Bill
 The bill was passed by a single vote, and said that Jews can declare belief “in a
future state of rewards and punishment.”
 Thomas Kennedy support of this bill caused him to be removed from the House,
however he got his seat in back, enabling him to see the passage of this bill
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Due to the Louisiana Purchase between Thomas Jefferson
and Napoleon, the United States doubled in size
Europe was facing a time of turmoil and political strife
making America a land of opportunity
Over 200,000 Jews came over during the migration in hopes of
economic and political freedom
 Although Jews settled in all the states, the majority settled in the
Northeast. New York became a popular destination for Jewish
immigrants. Many opened up their own businesses. It was hard
sometimes for Jewish immigrants to find jobs outside the Jewish
community so many Jews would often group together in the same
area. Many opened up their own shops because it was easier then
being hired elsewhere.
 Some left NY for Philadelphia during the Revolution and over the
next century the Philadelphia Jewish population grew
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Many worked in the garment industry-especially in Boston
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Most Jews stayed in eastern cities, but some went west due to the gold rush
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Travel by steamships on river opened up a practical means to trade with the Midwest
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Cincinnati, Ohio became an important center of commerce due to its location on the Ohio River
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New Orleans became part of America in the Louisiana Purchase, and soon
became one of America’s largest citie
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Jews came to New Orleans from the Alsace region of Franc
Judah Touro came to New Orleans and established himself as a great merchant and investor
In 1836 Jews went to Texas because of commercial opportunities, when Texas
gained its independence
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Jewish population expanded to include 8,000 by 1860
This is significant because it one of the largest population of Jews in America at this time
Spurred on by Isaac Mayer Wise Cincinnati became a center for the Jewish Reform movement
The first cemetery was created in 1844
A synagogue followed the creation of the cemetery in 1854
Levi Strauss was a German Jewish immigrant who traveled to San Francisco
during the gold rush. He developed a pair of pants that were more durable for the
people who were looking for gold. Copper metal rivets were used to strengthen the
pockets. He joined his friend Davis to start manufacturing the pants. The Levi
Strauss Company was founded in 1853 and the American Jean was born.
Adolf Sutro moved west. He developed a method to drain water and dangerous
gases from the miners. He later became mayor of San Francisco.
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Rebecca Gratz worked on reforms to make life better for minorities.
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Educator as part of the education reform movement. She encouraged other Jewish women to
participate in civic matters. She founded the Jewish Foster Home, Female Hebrew Benevolent
Society, and the first of its kind the Hebrew Sunday School. She helped write the first textbook for
Jewish children. She also worked to protect the rights of other minorities and woman. (Jewish
History Museum)
The Levy’s were a family that met several Indians as they traveled west. They petitioned the president
to null the treaties that took the land away from the Indians. Their petition was dismissed but they
continued to work for rights of Indians.
There were several Jewish support agencies and charities set up around the United states.
In Charleston they started holding Purim Balls. Purim is a Jewish holiday celebrating Esther saving
the Jews. People dress in costumes and gifts are exchanged.
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At the ball people brought gifts for the poor. The Balls became popular events around the country
and were attended by Christians and Jews.
Bnai Brith was formed in1843. Its name means Sons of the Covenant. It was developed to support
people if they were illness and other “untoward events”.
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B’nai B’rith is still around today and has expanded to include youth groups. Carrying on the
tradition, my mother was a member and now I am a member. B’nai B’rith hs become the largest
Jewish fraternity world wide.
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B’nai B’rith used some similar traditions as the Masons such as secret handshakes, and rituals.
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As a controversy over slavery developed Jews became
active in the debate
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Most Jews were against slavery and many spoke as
abolitionists. There were some Jews who supported slavery or
did not want to take sides
Rabbi David Einhorn gave sermons against slavery. He
said it was “rebellion against God.” He was an active
abolitionist. He was threatened by mob in Baltimore
and moved to Philadelphia to continue his work.
Rabbi Raphall from a New York congregation spoke
against extreme abolitionists. He did not support
slavery but felt the Bible said nothing against slavery.
His remarks were condemned in the Jewish press
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As the railroads opened many Jewish
merchants built businesses along the route
Jewish Traders traveled and brought goods to
lumber towns, mining communities and
isolated farms
Trade was a major source of income for many
Jews
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A small amount of Jews settled in Texas in
1820’s and 30’s when Mexico still had control
of the region
When Texas gained its independence,
Houston became the capital.
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Jews settled in Houston for business opportunities
The Texas Jewish population grew and formed
synagogue in 1855
Solomon Spielgelberg opened mercantile business
and his five brothers joined him. It grew to one of
Houston’s biggest businesses
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Jews divided over slavery debate
The majority was against slavery but some
supported the choice and still others had slaves.
Even the leaders were divided
Rabbi David Einhorn spoke up against slavery and was
an active abolitionist
 Reverend Morris Raphall felt that radical abolitionists
would divide the country and felt the union should be
protected.
 Einhorn called on the Jewish press to condemn Raphall’s
remarks
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8 to 10 thousand Jews fought in Civil War
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Judah Benjamin held prominent positions for Confederate Army
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Most fought for Union
He attended Yale at 14
He was in U.S. senate
When Jefferson Davis became head of Confederate, he gave Benjamin a
place in his cabinet
Benjamin was Attorney General and then secretary of War and then
Secretary of State for Confederate
After the war he moved to England
He was a slave owner
Septima Levy helped wounded soldiers on both sides
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She was married to a Union General
She wrote, “I never fully understood realized the fratricidal character of
the conflict until I lost my idolized brother Dave of the Southern army one
day, and was nursing my Northern husband back to life the next.”
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General Grant’s- General Orders No. 11
In 1862 there was a black market trade for cotton that developed in Tennessee and
Mississippi
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Colonel Max Friedman
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Led the Union’s 5th Cavalry-the “Cameron Dragoons”
It was made up mostly of Jews from Pennsylvania
Jewish Chaplain
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Many Jews and non-Jews took part in the trading but the Union military concentrated on the Jews
In Dec. 1862 Grant expelled Jews as a class, from the area that was under his rule.
Jews protested, the general media supported the Jews
The Missouri Lodge of B’nai B’rith wrote complaint to president
President Lincoln made Grant repeal the order.
Order was repealed Jan. 17, 1863
The group led by Max Freidman elected a Jew as their chaplain but there was a regulation stating
that all army chaplains had to be of some Christian denomination
After several tries and support from the Jewish community, the chaplain law was revised on July
17, 1862
It was a victory for religious freedom and a chaplain of any faith could serve
Lincoln appointed Rabbi Frankel to the first authorized chaplain in American armed forces
Reconstruction
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Many northern Jews went to the South in search of business opprotunities
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Emma Lazurus was a famous Jewish poet
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Wrote The New Colossus, a famous sonnet in 1883
 The sonnet is on the Statue of Liberty
 Not like the brazen giant of Greek fame,
 With conquering limbs astride from land to land;
 Here at our sea-washed, sunset gates shall stand
 A mighty woman with a torch, whose flame
 Is the imprisoned lightning, and her name
 Mother of Exiles. From her beacon-hand
 Glows world-wide welcome; her mild eyes command
 The air-bridged harbor that twin cities frame.
 "Keep ancient lands, your storied pomp!" cries she
 With silent lips. "Give me your tired, your poor,
 Your huddled masses yearning to breathe free,
 The wretched refuse of your teeming shore.
 Send these, the homeless, tempest-tost to me,
 I lift my lamp beside the golden door!"
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Founded in Cincinatti-1875
Oldest institution dedicated to higher Jewish
education in Western hemisphere
Prepares rabbis, cantors, educators, and other
workers
There are four campuses today—Cincinnati,
New York, Los Angeles, and Jerusalem
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Took place between 1880-19324
Most of the people who immigrated never returned home
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Left because of poverty and rulers that were oppressive
Life was not good for Jews in Europe
The country was suffering from overpopulation due to the influx
The legislation was oppressive
They were low class
Violent attacks against Jews-progroms-+ in large numbers between
1880-1924
 This is why many left
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Steamships brought the Jews to America
Many of the immigrants first went through New York
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Boston, Baltimore, or Philadelphia were other places the Jews came
Ellis Island was opened in 1892
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Russian Jews that immigrated to America were
poorer and less educated then the American German
Jewish community. They were also different
culturally
 In 1880 almost 90% of American synagogues were reform
 In 1890, after the Russian Jews began to arrive there were
almost 50% orthodox synagogues-mostly started by
Russian immigrants
 The disagreement grew between the reform and orthodox
communities and eventually a third movement emerged
that was in the middle between the two. This in-between
group is Conservative Judaism
 German Jews feared that anti-semitism would emerge
because of the influx of poor Jews
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It emerged after the "Trefah Dinner"-a dinner held in Cincinnati in
1883.
Held between reform and orthodox Jews to bring them together
The dinner failed because the Reform Jews, who made the menu,
ignored the Jewish dietary laws. Shell fish was served and this is
not allowed.
The Orthodox walked out.
In response, a group formed a movement that was a
“compromise” between reform and orthodox. They were called
conservative
The movement grew, especially in second and third generation
immigrants
The Jewish Theological Seminary was founded in 1886 – a school
to produce Conservative Rabbinic leadership. The formation of the
United Synagogue of Conservative Judaism (Klinger)
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Many Jewish women worked in the garment
industry
The Triangle Shirtwaist Factory fire occurred in 1911
 killed 146 mainly young Jewish women
 , led to the creation of better and safer working
conditions for all Americans
 As a response to the bad conditions, labor unions
formed-Jews played large role in formation of these
unions
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Rebecca Gratz was alive during the industrial
revolution, which also spur on reforms to make life
better for minorities. Rebecca Gratz participated in
this era as an activist and as an educator as part of
the education reform movement. Thomas Sully
who made a picture of Rebecca Gratz said about
her beauty, “All that a princess of blood Royal
might have coveted.” She created a new window
for Jewish women to participate in civic matters.
She founded the Jewish Foster Home, Female
Hebrew Benevolent Society, and the first of its
kind the Hebrew Sunday School. She helped write
the first textbook for Jewish children.
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Levi was a German Jewish immigrant who
traveled to San Francisco during the gold rush. He
developed a pair of pants that were more durable
for the people who were looking for gold. Copper
metal rivets were used to strengthen the pockets.
He joined his friend Davis to start manufacturing
the pants. The Levi Strauss Company was
founded in 1853 and the American Jean was born.
Levi Strauss Company grew to make Levi a
multimillionaire. He never married and when he
died he left the company to his four nephews. He
also gave millions to the Pacific Hebrew Orphan
Asylum and the Roman Catholic Orphan Asylum
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Rabbi Isaac Mayer Wise immigrated from
Bohemia. He first moved to N.Y. and 5 years later
moved to Cincinnati. He was a large influence on
Reform Judaism in the U.S. In 1857 he wrote the
first siddur, Jewish prayer book, that was edited
for American Jews. He found the Union of
American Hebrew Congregations in 1873. This
organized several synagogues together and was
meant to support Jewish education and be a
support for the community. He also started the
Hebrew Union College in Cincinnati in 1875. He
also formed the Central Conference of American
Rabbis (CCAR) in 1889. It was an organization of
rabbis.
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Aaron Levy found Aaronsburg Pennsylvania.
He bought a female black slave named
Rachael. He went back to Philadelphia with
Rachael and immediately freed her. He gave
her an education. Eventually the two married.
educated her and he married her. She is buried
in a Jewish cemetery.
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Emma Lazurus came from a large family of seven
children, in which she was the fourth born to
Moshe Lazarus and Esther Nathan. She was well
taught, and studied literature from America and
England and knew several languages—German,
French and Italian. Lazarus became a very famous
poet. She is best known for her sonnet, “The New
Colossus” which she wrote in 1883. This work of
hers is part of the Statue of Liberty. She was a
strong advocate of Zionism (arguing for a Jewish
homeland) which is remarkable because the term
was not even invented for more than 10 years after
her struggle.
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Judah Benjamin lived from 1811-1884. Although,
he originally was a British subject from the West
Indies he later moved to America. Once the
Confederacy was formed, Judah Benjamin joined
the new nation. He is best known for his politics.
He was a member of the Louisianna House of
Representatives, as well as a US Senator from
Louisianna. This is a major deal because it means
he is the second Jewish person to be elected
senator. He was so popular, he had to decline
twice the offer to be part of the US Supreme Court,
which he was the first Jew ever asked to join.
What state did Reform Judaism begin in the U.S.?
1)
1)
2)
3)
4)
South Carolina
Philadelphia
New York
Rhode Island
What group of Jewish immigrants influenced the start of the American Jewish Reform movement?
2)
1)
2)
3)
4)
Russian Jews
Spanish Jews
German Jews
French Jews
Where did the Jewish Reform grow strongest?
3)
1)
2)
3)
4)
New York City
Cincinnati
Philadelphia
Jacksonville
What were some ideas of the Jewish Reform movement?
4)
1)
2)
3)
They did away with some Jewish laws and traditions such as kosher laws, wearing and wearing a kippa. They
translated prayer book.
They became more strict
They through out the old laws and made new ones
Were most Jewish Americans influential in the slave trade?
5)
1)
2)
3)
Yeas
No
Half/half
Did some Jews own slaves?
1)
1)
2)
3)
4)
No they did not
Yes, mostly Southern Jews
Yes, mostly Northern Jews
Yes, mostly Western Jews
Were any Jews abolitionists? Can you name one?
2)
1)
2)
3)
Yes. Elias Levy
No, none participated
No, they were for slavery
Did reform Judaism change over the years?
3)
1)
2)
3)
Yes. It became less radical and accepted some traditions and laws back into the practice of Reform
Judaism.
No
It became more radical
Who was Aaron Levy?
4)
1)
2)
3)
He died in the Civil War
He was in the Senate
He bought, freed, educated and married Rachael who was born a slave.
Who was Isaac Mayer Wise?
5)
1)
2)
3)
He was a Reform Rabbi in Cincinnati who helped organize Reform Judaism and also founded
Jewish College.
He bought, freed, educated and married Rachael who was born a slave
He was in the Senate
1)
2)
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What state did Reform Judaism begin in the U.S.? South Carolina
What group of Jewish immigrants influenced the start of the American
Jewish Reform movement? The German Jews
Where did the Jewish Reform grow strongest? Cincinnati
What were some ideas of the Jewish Reform movement? They did away
with some Jewish laws and traditions such as kosher laws, wearing and
wearing a kippa. They translated prayer book.
Were most Jewish AMericans influential in the slave trade?No
Did some Jews own slaves? Yes, mostly Southern Jews
Were any Jews abolitionists? Can you name one? Yes. Elias Levy
Did reform Judaism change over the years? Yes. It became less radical
and accepted some traditions and laws back into the practice of Reform
Judaism.
Who was Aaron Levy? He bought, freed, educated and married Rachael
who was born a slave.
Who was Isaac Mayer Wise? He was a Reform Rabbi in Cincinnati who
helped organize Reform Judaism and also founded Jewish College.
Which state was a major area of debate, after refusing to get rid of its Christian oath requirement to
hold office?
1)
1)
2)
3)
4)
A) New York
B) South Carolina
C) Maryland
D) Florida
Why did Jews move west:
2)
1)
2)
3)
4)
A) Exploration
B) Gold Rush
C) Land
D) To escape religious persecution
Who created the first Hebrew Sunday School?
3)
1)
2)
3)
4)
A) Rebecca Gratz
B) Thomas Kennedy
C) Mordecia Noah
D) Isaac Wise
What city’s Jewish population grew to 8,000 by 1860 because of its location on the water?
4)
1)
2)
3)
4)
A) Charleston
B) Washington DC
C) New Orleans
D) Cincinnati
Why did Levi Strauss develop jeans?
5)
1)
2)
3)
4)
A)make more comfortable pants
B)He wanted to develop pants that lasted longer so miners wouldn’t wear out their jeans
C)He wanted to move fashion in a new direction
D)He saw Americans needed wider cut pants
Jews developed what annual charity event to collect presents for the poor?
1)
1)
2)
3)
4)
What social fraternity developed in America in the 1800’s became the largest Jewish fraternity in the
world?
2)
1)
2)
3)
4)
1)
2)
3)
4)
1)
2)
3)
4)
7)
8)
9)
A) Ohio
B) South Caolina
C) New York
D) Philadelphia
Jews who settled in New Orleans came mostly from what country?
4)
6)
A)B’nai B’rith
B) Tsedakah
C)Reform movement
D) Masons
Where was the first Reform Congregation?
3)
5)
A)Passover Ball
B)Hanukah Ball
C) Purim Ball
D) Freedom Ball
A)France
B)Germany
C)Russia
D)England
The Reform movement changed what traditions?
A) allowed men and women to prayer together
B) did more prayers in English
C) did away with Kosher rules
D) All of the above
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
7)
8)
9)
10)
Which state was a major area of debate, after refusing to get rid of its
Christian oath requirement to hold office? Answer: C) Maryland
Why did Jews move west: Answer: B) Gold Rush
Who created the first Hebrew Sunday School? Answer: A) Rebecca Gratz
What city’s Jewish population grew to 8,000 by 1860 because of its
location on the water? Answer: D) Cincinnati
Why did Levi Strauss develop jeans? answerB) He wanted to develop
pants that lasted longer so miners wouldn’t wear out their pants
Jews developed what annual charity event to collect presents for the poor?
answerC)Purim Ball
What social fraternity developed in America in the 1800’s became the
largest Jewish fraternity in the world?Answer A) B’nai B’rith
Where was the first Reform Congregation?answerB) South Carolina
Jews who settled in New Orleans came mostly from what
country?A)France
The Reform movement changed what traditions? D) all of above
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What was a major source of income for many Jews?
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Who was Solomon Spielgelberg?
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He was in the US Senate
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He was a representative
He was in the Confederate Army
He a business and Texas and hid 5 brothers joined
Who was Judah Benjamin?
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He served in the Confederacy
He was in the Senate
First Jew considered for Supreme Court
Who was Septima Levy?
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Trade
teaching
farming
Fishing
First woman to fight for the US
A nurse who kept specific records
Married to an Union soldier and wrote about her account of the war
Who was Max Friedman?
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He was elected chaplain and the rule had to be revised since he wasn’t Christian
A soldier in the Union
Soldier in the Confederacy
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What is special about “The New Colossus” written by Emma Lazaruz?
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The Inquisition
Expelled
Poverty and oppressive rulers
Just poverty
Where did the Jews mostly first come to America?
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New York City
Cincinnati
Philadelphia
Little Rock
Why did many Jews leave Europe?
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It explained Jewish traditions
It was on the Statue of Liberty
It was burned in a pogrom as a symbol of the hatred against Jews in Europe
Where was the Hebrew Union College founded?
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It evoked many anti-slavery attitudes in the North
Boston
Philadelphia
Rhode Island
New York
What side did Jews fight on during the Civil War?
Union
Confederate
Both Union and. Confederate
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What was a major source of income for many Jews? Answer: Trade
Who was Solomon Spielgelberg? Answer: He opened a business and
Texas and his five brothers joined him
Who was Judah Benjamin? Answer: All of the above
Who was Septima Levy? Answer: Married to an Union soldier and wrote
about her account of the war
Who was Max Friedman? Answer: He was elected chaplain and the rule
had to be revised since he wasn’t Christian
What was special about “The New Colossal” written by Emma Lazarus?
It is on Statue of Liberty
Where was the Hebrew Union College Formed? Answer: Cincinnati
Why did many Jews leave Europe: Answer: Poverty and oppressive rules
Where did the Jews mostly first come to America? Answer: New York
What sid eof the Civil War did Jews Fight on? Both Union and
Confederate
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Sedar- Jewish prayer book
Kippa- Jewish cap that men wear.
Abolitionist-A person against slavery
Defamation act of causing false or injustified
injury of the good reputation of someone
reform- to change
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Pogrom- destruction/devastation
Cavalry-a section of the military that ride on
horseback
Chaplain-a person who says an invocation at
an assembly
Colossus-something of extraordinary height
Radical-doing something to the extreme
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Bill-a law that is being proposed to legislation
but hasn’t been passed yet
Oath-a promise
Turmoil-distressing times
Kosher-the set of guidelines that instruct a
Jewish diet
Louisiana Purchase-the purchase of land for
the US by Thomas Jefferson from Napoleon
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Goodman,Gwen (editor). Dreams of Freedom. National Museum of American Jewish History. Phila,
Pa. 2011
Jews in America, Our Story.1800’s.
http://nationalhumanitiescenter.org/tserve/nineteen/nkeyinfo/judaism.htm
Jews in America. Jewish Virtual Library. 2010 http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/USIsrael/jewstoc.html 1/5/11
Jews in America, Our Story 1830-1880. Center for Jewish History. 2010
http://www.jewsinamerica.org/ 1/5/11
Klinger, Jerry. Jewish Magazine. 1800-1860. http://www.jewishmag.com/82mag/usa5/usa5.htm
Klinger, Jerry. No Jews Welcome-Welcome to all Jews. The Jewish Magazine.8/2004
http://www.jewishmag.com/82mag/usa5/usa5.htm1/5/ 2011
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Klinger, Jerry. Slavery. Jewish Magazine. http://www.jewishmag.com/83mag/usa6/usa6.htm
Origins of Reform Judaism. Jewish Virtual Library.
http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Judaism/The_Origins_of_Reform_Jud
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Timeline, Jews in America. Center for Jewish History. 2010. http://www.jewsinamerica.org/ 1/5/11
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Timeline 1800’s. Archives of Congress.
http://www.loc.gov/exhibits/haventohome/timeline/haven-timeline_2.html 2/9/10