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Social Contact
Concepts, determinants, and
measurements
Concept and Definitions
 Complex concept
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Multitude of different experiences
Multitude of different situations
 Work,
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home, travel
Personal; occurs between a minimum of 2
persons
 Interpersonal
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encounter
Encounter with others
 Positive,
negative or superficial
Levels of Social Contact
 Co-presence
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Minimum level of interaction
Signaling awareness of presence and accessibility
 Focused
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Higher level of interaction
Gathering and cooperating to sustain single focus
of attention
 Co-presence may or may not lead to focused
interaction
Analysis of Social Situations
Features of social interactions (Argyle et al., 1981):
 Goals
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Purposes that direct and motivate
 Rules
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Shared beliefs that regulate and generate actions
 Roles
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Duties and rights of social position of interactants
 Repertoire of elements
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Sum of verbal and non-verbal behavior
Analysis of Social Situations
 Sequences of behavior
 Specific order of actions for effective behavior
 Concepts
 Understanding of elements for behavior and goal
achievement
 Environmental setting
 Encounter setting (spaces, boundaries)
 Language
 Speech and variations
 Difficulties and skills
 Perceptual, memory, motor, and linguistic skills
Social Contact in Tourism
 Tourist-host
 Tourist-tourist
 Tourist-potential tourist
 Tourist-provider contacts
Definition of Tourist
Range of meanings
 Degree of institutionalization, type of
encounter, form of travel, traveler status
 Operational
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Temporary visitor
Arriving at holiday destination
Stays for minimum of 24 hrs, maximum of
12 months
Any purpose other than employment
Definition of (Professional) Host
 Resident of visited destination
 Employed in tourism industry
 Tourist service-providers
Setting of Tourist-Host Contact
 Transportation
 Lodging
 Dining
 Sightseeing
 Shopping
 Entertainment
 Observations
Forms of Tourist-Host Contact
 Purchasing of goods and services
 Side-by-side presence/exchange
 Face to face exchange of information
Tourist-Host Cultural Contact
 Face to face contact between tourists
and hosts
 Different cultural backgrounds
 Travel from home culture to host culture
 Serving tourists from foreign culture
Tourist-Host Cultural Contact
 Two types of contact
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Intercultural contact
 Interaction

between two different cultures
Cross-cultural contact
 Interaction
groups
between more than two cultural
Contact Hypothesis
Social contact between individuals from
different cultural groups results in
 Positive outcomes
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Mutual appreciation, understanding,
respect, tolerance, liking (Bochner, 1982)
Positive attitudes (Fisher and Price, 1991)
Reduces ethnic prejudices, stereotypes,
and racial tension (Cohen, 1971)
Cultural enrichment, improved social
interactions (UNESCO, 1976; Vogt, 1977)
Contact Hypothesis
Social contact between individuals from
different cultural groups results in
 Negative outcomes
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Negative attitudes
Negative stereotypes, prejudices, tensions,
hostility (Bochner, 1982)
Ethnocentrism (Triandis and Vassilou,
1967)
Clashes of values, conflict, and
disharmonies (Hall, 1984)
Contact Hypothesis
Social contact between individuals from different
cultural groups results in
 Negative outcomes
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Exclusion from mutual activities (Asar, 1952)
Formality of contact, social barriers, personal
friendship barriers (Taft, 1977)
Superficial relationships (Watson and Lippitt, 1955)
Negative feelings, inferiority, self-rejection
(Bettelheim, 1943)
Contact Hypothesis
Social contact between individuals from
different cultural groups results in
 Negative outcomes
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Resentment, irritation, frustration, and
stress (Taft, 1977)
Language barriers (Arjona, 1956),
communication problems (Argyle et al.,
1981)
Loss of sense of security and emotional
well-being (Lynch, 1960)
Contact Hypothesis
Social contact between individuals from different
cultural groups results in
 Negative outcomes
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Differences in subjective cultures
Social contact becomes a threatening experience
Participants feel like outsiders
Inhibits social interaction, future contact lost (Kamal
and Maruyama, 1990)
Negative feelings increase with frequent contact
(Anant, 1971)
Contact Hypothesis in Tourism
Positives
 Tourism’s potential for fostering understanding
between nations and peace
 ‘Guest’ treatment, cultural pride among hosts,
greater socialization
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Friendly, respectful, interested tourists
 Contact and knowledge of each other seen as
important
 Enhancement of tourist and host attitudes
 Positive attitude (change) towards hosts
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Greater intensity and longer contact/interaction time
Higher satisfaction levels
Contact Hypothesis in Tourism
Negatives
 Positive attitudes not possible due to
superficial nature of tourist-host contact
 Distorted and superficial perceptions
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Perceptions of tourist based on symbols
Perceptions of host based on status and
outcomes of commercial exchange
Contact Hypothesis in Tourism
Negatives
 Negative change of attitudes
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Minor change in positive direction
Majority of change in negative direction
Extra tension added as a result of
economic encounter
Confirmation of positive or negative
attitudes
Contact Hypothesis in Tourism
Negatives
 Pressure to develop stereotypes
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‘Passing through’ character of tourists
 Clash of values
 Liberal values of Western tourists and
domestic social rules
 Reversal of gender roles
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Tourist isolation, separation, and
segregation
Stress, victimization and harassment
Contact Hypothesis in Tourism
Negatives
 Communication problems
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Differences in language, gesture, space,
time, and status
Safety and health hazards
Disappointment, discouragement and
dissatisfaction
Tourist-Host Contact
 Advantages outweigh disadvantages
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Break up isolation, create awareness among cultural
groups
Opportunity to learn and fundamental intercultural
encounters
 Less developed countries
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Negative effect of contact is increased
Tourists perceived as aggressive and insensitive
Exploitation, assault, victimization, social problems