Download Perception

Perception
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Is a complicated interaction of selection,
organization and interpretation.
Perception largely depends upon sense for raw
data. The cognitive process filters, modifies or
completely changes the data.
Nature & Importance of Perception
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Perception is a unique interpretation of the
situation, not an exact recording of it.
Recognition of difference between the
perceptual world and the real world is vital.
Perception Process
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Cognitions are basically bits of information
Cognitive process involve the ways in which
people process the information
People’s individual differences and uniqueness are largely the result of cognitive process
Perceptual Selectivity
Intensity
The more intense the external stimulus, the more likely
it is to be perceived
 Size
Larger the size of object, the more likely it will be
perceived.
 Contrast
Objects which stand out against the background or
which are not what people are expecting will receive
their notice
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Repetition
Repeated stimulus is more attention getting than
a single one.
Motion
People will pay more attention to moving objects
in their field of view than they will to stationary
objects.
Novelty
A navel or unfamiliar objects can serve as
attention getter
Perceptual Organization
What takes place in the perceptual process once
the information from any situation or object is
received.
Perceptional process organizes the incoming
information into a meaningful whole.
Figure - Ground
The perceived objects stand out as different and
separable from their general back ground.
Perceptual Grouping
The process of grouping several different stimuli
together into a recognizable pattern.
Perceptual Grouping
The process of grouping several different stimuli
together into a recognizable pattern.
Closure
:
Perceiving whole when one
does not exist.
Continuity :
Tendency to perceive
continuous lines or patterns.
Proximity :
Group of stimuli that are
close together are perceived as a
whole pattern of parts belonging
together.
Similarity :
Similar stimuli are perceived as
belonging to a common group.
Perceptual Constancy
Individuals demonstrate constancy of perception
in a tremendously variable and highly complex
world.
Perceptual Context
All perceptions are based on context of situation.
The organizational culture and structure provide
primary context in which managers and workers
do their perceiving.
Perceptual Defence
Blocking or refusing to recognize stimuli or
situational events in a particular context that are
unacceptable or threatening
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Denial
Modification and distortion
Recognition, but refusal to change
Change in perception
Social Perception
Social perception is directly concerned with how
one individual perceives other individuals
How we get to know others.
Factors influencing how a person
perceives others.
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Knowing one self makes it easier to see other
accurately.
One’s own characteristics effect the
characteristics one is likely to see in others.
People who accept themselves are more likely
to be able to see favorable aspects of other
people.
Accuracy in perceiving is not a single skill.
Characteristics of person being
perceived that influence perception
Status of person will greatly influence other’s
perception of the person.
 Role of person will have similar affects on
perception.
 Visible traits will also greatly influence
perception.
Tall, fat, bald, fair color, attractiveness.
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Psychological Factors in Perception
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Attribution.
How people explain the cause of another’s or their own
behavior.
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Dispositional Attribution
Situational Attribution
Stereotyping
Tendency to perceive another person as belonging to a
single class or category.
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Halo Effect.
Under the halo effect, the person is perceived on the basis
of one trait. (whatever that trait is, it over rides all other traits
in forming perception)
Impression Management
The process by which people attempt to manage or
control the perceptions others form of them.
People tend to present themselves so as to impress other
in a socially desirable way.
 Impression motivation
As goal that motivates a person to impress others.
 Impression construction
the specific type of impression people want to
make and how they go about doing it.
PERSONALITY
The stable set of psychological
characteristics that influences the way an
individual interacts with his or her
environment.
Personality
How people affect others and how they
understand and view themselves, as well
as their pattern of inner and outer
measurable traits and the person – situation
interaction.
Personality Traits
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Extraversion
Emotional Stability
Agreeableness
Conscientiousness
Openness to experience
Extraversion
Sociable, Talktive, Assertive
The extent to which a person is outgoing
versus shy. High extraverts enjoy social
situations, while those low on this
dimension (introverts) avoid them.
Emotional Stability
Relaxed, Secure, Stable
The degree to which a person has
appropriate emotional control. People
with high emotional stability are self
confident and have high self-esteem.
Those with lower emotional stability tend
to have negative standpoint, be tense and
nervous and feel insecure.
Agreeableness
Good natured, Cooperative, Trusting
The extent to which a person is friendly and
approachable. Agreeable people are warm
and considerate. Less agreeable people tend
to be cold and aloof.
Conscientiousness
Responsible, Dependable, Persistent,
Achievement - oriented
The degree to which a person is responsible
and achievement-oriented. Conscientious
people are dependable and positively
motivated. Less conscientious people are
unreliable.
Openness to Experience
Imaginative, artistically sensitive,
Intellectual
The extent to which a person thinks
flexibly and is receptive to new ideas.
Open people tend toward creativity and
innovation. Less open people favour the
status quo.
The self – Concept
People`s attempts to understand themselves are
called self–concept.
The self – esteem
People`s self concept about their self–
perceived competence and self–image is called
self-esteem
The self – efficacy
People`s self concept about themselves as to
how they can cope with situation as they arise
Person – Situation Interaction
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Personality dimensions are flexible
People are not static, acting the same in
all situations
Every day situations change people
Development of Personality
Adult Life Stages
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Entering adult world
(ages 22 – 28)
Settling down
(ages 33 – 40)
Entering middle adulthood
(ages 45 – 50)
End of middle adulthood (ages 55 – 60)
Transition Periods
Age 30 transition
Mid-life transition
Age 50 transition
Late adult transition
(ages 28 – 33)
(ages 40 – 45)
(ages 50 – 55)
(ages 60 – 65)
Immaturity – Maturity Scale
Human personality (rather than going through
precise stages) progresses along a scale from
immaturity as as infant to maturity as an adult.
Immaturity
Maturity
Passivity
Dependence
Few ways of behaving
Shallow interests
Short time perspective
Subordinate position
Lack of self - awareness
Activity
Independence
Diverse behavior
Deep interests
Long time perspective
Superordinate position
Self awareness & control
Socialization Process
The continuous impact from the social
environment on an individual`s personality
is called socialization process.
Socialization process starts with the initial
contact between a mother and her new
infant.
Organizational Socialization
Org. socialization starts when a person joins an
organization as an employee.
Main characteristics of Org. Socialization
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Change of attitude, values & behaviors
Adjustment to new job, workgroup, Org.practices
Mutual influence between new and old
employees and their managers.
Criticality of early socialization period.
Special Techniques for socializing :
new employees
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Provide a challenging first job.
Provide relevant training.
Provide timely and consistent feed back.
Appoint a good first supervisor to be
incharge of socialization.
A relaxed orientation program.
Place new employees with workgroups with
high morale.
Attitude
Personality is thought of a whole person,
while attitude is part of personality
(attitude may make up the personality)
Attitude is a persistent tendency to feel
and behave in a particular way towards
some object
Characteristics of Attitude
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Persistence
Attitude tend to persist unless something is
done to change them.
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Severity
Attitude can fall any where on a scale from
very favorable to very unfavorable
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Direction
Attitudes can be directed toward some object
or person about which a person has feelings
Components of Attitudes
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Emotional
Informational
Behavioral
Emotional component involves person`s feeling about
an object.
Positive, Neutral, Negative
Informational component consists of the beliefs and
information a person has about an object.
Behavioral component consists of a person`s tendencies
to behave in a perticular way toward an object.
Functions of Attitudes
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Adjustment function
Attitudes often help people adjust to their work
environment.
Ego – Defensive function
Attitudes help people to defend their self – images.
Value – expressive function
Attitudes provide people with a basis for expressing
their values.
Knowledge function
Attitudes help supply standards and frames of
reference that allow people to organize and explain world
around them.
Changing Attitudes
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Attitudes can be changed. Some times it is
in the best interest of organization,
management and employees.
Providing new information
Use of fear
Resolving discrepancies
Influence of friends & peers
Co- opting approach
Barriers to changing Attitude
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Prior comitments / unwillingness to
change
Insufficient information
Not resolving discrepancies
JOB SATISFACTION
It is a pleasurable or positive emotional state resulting from
the appraisal of one`s job or job experience.
Dimentions of job satisfaction
 Emotional response
 Outcomes meeting or exceeding expectations
 Attitudes
Factors affecting job satisfaction
 Work itself
 Pay
 Promotions
 Supervision
 Working conditions
 Workgroup
Outcomes of Job Satisfaction
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Satisfaction & productivity
Turnover
Absenteeism
Behavior, attitude
Enhancing job satisfaction
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Making jobs more enjoyable
Having fair pay, benefits and promotion
opportunities.
Matching people`s skill & interests with
jobs.
Designing jobs more exciting &
satisfying.
ORGANIZATION COMMITMENT
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A strong desire to remain a member of a
particular organization
A willingness to exert high levels of
effort on behalf of the organization
A definite belief in, and acceptance of,
the values and goal of the organization
DIMENSION OF COMMITMENT
Effective commitment
It involves employee`s emotional attachment to,
identification with, and involment in the organization
Continuance Commitment
Involves commitment based on the costs that the
employee associates with leaving the organization.
Normative commitment
Involves the employee`s feeling of obligation to stay with
the organization
Outcomes of Org. Commitment
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High performance
Low turnover
Low absenteeism
Warm, supportive organization climate
Fulfillment of dimensions of commitment.
Continuance of positive attitude, morale and
benefits.