Download Motivation

Motivation
Chapter 12
Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education
Canada
1
Chapter Outline
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Defining motivation
The hungry animal: Motives to eat
The social animal: Motives to love
The erotic animal: Motives for sex
The competent animal: Motives to achieve
Motives, values, and well-being
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Defining Motivation
• An inferred process within a person or
animal that causes movement either
toward a goal or away from an
unpleasant situation
– Intrinsic motivation
• The pursuit of activity for its own sake
– Extrinsic motivation
• The pursuit of an activity for external rewards
such as money or fame
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The Hungry Animal:
Motives to Eat
• The genetics of weight
• Culture, psychology, and weight
• Weight and health: Body versus culture
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The Genetics of Weight
• Research suggests that heavy people are no
more and no less emotionally disturbed than
average weight people
• Heaviness is not always caused by overeating
• Set point
– The genetically influenced weight range for an
individual, maintained by biological mechanisms
that regulate food intake, fat reserves and
metabolism
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Body Weight of Twins
• Identical twins weigh and gain weight
similarly
• The complexity of mechanisms
governing appetite and weight explains
why “appetite suppressing” drugs fail in
the long run
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Body Weight of Twins
• Identical twins are
more similar in body
weight than fraternal
– Same whether raised
together or apart
• Genetic factors play
a large role in body
weight
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The Role of Leptin
• Leptin alters the brain chemistry that
influences how animals eat as adults
• Regulates weight by strengthening neural
circuits in hypothalamus that reduce appetite
and weakening neural circuits that stimulate
• Has led to hypothesis that overfeeding infants
while hypothalamus is developing may
produce childhood obesity
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The Complexity of Weight
• Appetite suppressants alone often fail
for individuals losing weight
• Other factors include:
– Other genes and body chemicals
– Hormones which regulate hunger
– Receptors in nose, mouth, and stomach
regulate eating
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The Overweight Debate
• Is it weight or fitness?
– Many researchers believe that individuals
who are overweight and physically fit are
actually healthier than individuals who are
sedentary and thin
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Culture, Psychology, and
Weight
• The environment and obesity
• Cultural attitudes
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The Environment and Obesity
• Environmental factors related to weight gain:
– Increased abundance of low-cost, varied high fat meals
– The habit of eating high calorie food on the run instead
of leisurely meals
– The rise in energy saving devices such as remote
controls
– The speed and conveniences of driving rather than
walking or biking
– The preference for watching television or videos instead
of exercising
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Cultural Attitudes
• In many cultures, where food is a rarer
commodity, fat is viewed as a sign of health
and affluence in men, sexual desirability in
women
• While people of all ethnicities and social
classes have been getting heavier, the
cultural ideal for white women has been
getting thinner
• The cultural ideal for men has also changed
– Muscles used to mean a working class, now
muscular bodies symbolize affluence
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Cultural Attitudes
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Although more Canadian men than women are
overweight or obese, more Canadian women are
currently dieting, even when their weight is in the
healthy range
Regardless of actual weight, research has shown
that Canadian teenage girls want to lose weight,
while most boys want to gain weight
Cultural norms appear in the teens and persist into
adulthood
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Weight and Health:
Biology versus Culture
• People from cultures that regard overweight
as a sign of health and sexiness are more
likely to be obese
• People from cultures emphasizing thinness
are more likely to have eating disorders.
• Many with eating disorders reflect an
irrational terror of being too fat
– Bulimia
– Anorexia nervosa
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Ideal Body Image
• Which image is ideal for your sex?
• Which comes closest to your own body?
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Bulimia and Anorexia Nervosa
• Bulimia
– An eating disorder characterized by episodes of
excessive eating (binges) followed by forced
vomiting or use of laxatives (purging)
• Anorexia Nervosa
– An eating disorder characterized by fear of being
fat, a distorted body image, radically reduced
consumption of food, and emaciation
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Influences on Eating Disorders
• Presence of extremely slim television stars
• Genetic mutations or set points that conflict
with cultural standard
• For men, increase in male responsiveness to
cultural expectations may be related to their
desire to be more “manly”
• Unrealistic standards of beauty and selfcritical views
• Psychological factors such as depression,
anxiety, low self-esteem, perfectionism,
distorted body image and pressure from
others to lose weight
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The Social Animal:
Motives to Love
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Biology of love
The psychology of love
The ingredients of love
Attachment theory of love
Gender, culture, and love
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The Biology of Love
• Neurological origins of passionate love begin
in infancy when infants attach to the mother
• Certain neurotransmitters and hormones
involved in pleasure and reward are activated
in both mother-baby, adult lover, and close
friend bonds
– Endorphins
• Functional MRIs have shown other
neurological similarities
– Certain parts of the brains light up when they look
at photos of sweethearts and biological children
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The Psychology of Love
• The need for affiliation
– The motive to associate with other people,
as by seeking friends, companionship, or
love
• Predictors of love
– Proximity
• Choosing friends and lovers from the set of
people who are closest to us
– Similarity
• Choosing friends and lovers who are like us in
looks, attitudes, beliefs, personality, and
interests
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The Ingredients of Love
• Sternberg’s Triangular theory of love
– Passion
• Euphoria and sexual excitement
– Intimacy
• Being free to talk about things, feeling close to and
understood by loved ones
– Commitment
• Needing to be with the other person; being loyal
• Ideal love involves all three
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The Attachment Theory of Love
• Just as infants have attachment styles
to their caregivers, adults have
attachment styles to their partners
– Secure or rarely jealous or worried about
being abandoned
– Avoidant or distrustful and avoids intimate
attachments
– Anxious, ambivalent or agitated and
worried that partner will leave
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Distribution of Attachment Style
• A representative survey of adults from
the United States indicated:
– Securely attached 66%
– Avoidant
25%
– Anxious
11%
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Gender, Culture, and Love
• Males and females respond similarly to:
– Love at first sight
– Passionate love
– Companionate love
– Unrequited love
– Being securely or insecurely attached
– Being the break-up recipient
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Gender, Culture, and Love
• Men and women different in
– How they express love
• Men: doing; women: saying
– How they define intimacy
• Men: hanging out; women: sharing feelings
• Men and women used to have different
goals in choices of partners
– Men: more romantic; women: more pragmatic
– As more women have become economically
self-sufficient, differences have decreased
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The Erotic Animal:
Motives for Sex
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The Biology of Desire
The Psychology of Desire
The Culture of Desire
The Riddle of Sexual Orientation
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The Biology of Desire
• Hormones and sexual response
• Arousal and orgasm
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Hormones and Sexual Response
• Testosterone appears to promote sexual desire
in both sexes
• Documentation included several studies of men
and women
• However, this is not simple relationship
– Sexual behaviour also increases testosterone
– Psychological factors are usually more important
than hormones
– Sexual offenders who are chemically castrated don’t
always lose sexual desires
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Arousal and Orgasm
• Freud differentiated between “immature”
clitoral orgasms and “mature” vaginal
orgasms in women
• Kinsey suggested that males and females
had similar orgasms but that females were
less sexual
• Masters and Johnson asserted that women’s
capacity for sexual responses surpassed
men’s
– Didn’t examine differences based on
developmental, experiential or cultural factors
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Arousal and Orgasm
• What we know now
– Physiological responses don’t always
correlate with subjective experiences
– Psychologists still disagree on whether
there are sex differences in sex drive
– Social psychologists suggest that
• males’ sexual behaviour is more biologically
determined, while
• females’ sexual desires and responsiveness
are more affected by circumstances, the
specific relationship and cultural norms
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The Sexual-Response Cycle
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The Psychology of Desire
• Motives for sex include:
– Enhancement
– Intimacy
– Coping
– Self-Affirmation
– Partner Approval
– Peer Approval
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Sexual Coercion and Rape
• Persistent gender differences occur in
perceptions of, and experiences with sexual
coercion
– Of a representative sample of 3000 people,
25% of the women said that a man (usually
husband or boyfriend) had forced them to
do something sexually
– Only 3% of the men said they had ever
forced a woman into a sexual act
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Possible Motivations for Rape
• Peer approval
• Anger, revenge, or desire to dominate
and humiliate victim
• Narcissism and hostility toward women
• Contempt for victim and a sadistic
pleasure in inflicting pain
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The Culture of Desire
• Sexual Scripts
– Sets of implicit rules that specify proper
sexual behaviour for a person in a given
situation, varying with the person’s age,
culture, and gender
• The role of sexual scripts and African American
women’s behaviour
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Gender, Culture, and Sex
• When men are rare:
– men are more likely to have multiple sexual
partners
– there are increased divorce rates
– there are increased single-parent families
– women become more independent
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The Riddle of Sexual Orientation
• Factors that do not explain homosexuality:
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A smothering mother
An absent father
Emotional problems
Same-sex play in childhood and adolescence
Parental practices
Role models
Seduction by an older adult
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Biological Explanations for
Homosexuality
• Studies demonstrating brain differences
have not been replicated
• Prenatal exposure to androgens
• May be moderately heritable
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Sexual Orientation: Genetic Links
• Identical twins have
highest concordance
(similarity) rates for
sexual orientation
– Same pattern for males
and females
• This suggests some
genetic link in sexual
orientation
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Difficulty in Finding Origin of
Homosexuality
• Sexual identity and behaviour are
different and can occur in different
combinations
– Some are sexually attracted to both men
and women
– Some are heterosexual in behaviour but
have homosexual fantasies
• Sexual behaviours can differ in different
cultures
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The Competent Animal:
Motives to Achieve
• The Effects of Motivation on Work
• The Effects of Work on Motivation
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Motives to Achieve
• Need for achievement
– A learned motive to meet personal
standards of success and excellence in a
chosen area
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The Importance of Goals
• Goals improve motivation when:
– The goal is specific
– The goal is challenging but achievable
– The goal is framed in terms of approach
goals instead of avoidance goals
• Approach goals are framed as getting what is
wanted
• Avoidance goals are framed in terms of
avoiding unpleasant experiences
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Types of Goals
• Performance Goals
– Goals framed in terms of performing well in
front of others, being judged favourably,
and avoiding criticism
• Mastery (Learning) Goals
– Goals framed in terms of increasing one’s
competence and skills
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Praise for Effort vs. Praise for
Intelligence
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Expectations and Self-Efficacy
• Self-fulfilling prophecy
– An expectation that comes
true because of the
tendency of the person
holding it to act in ways
that bring it about
• Self-efficacy
– A person’s belief that he or
she is capable of producing
desired results, such as
mastering new skills and
reaching goals
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The Effects of Work on
Motivation
• Working conditions
• Opportunities to achieve
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Working Conditions
• Working conditions that increase job
involvement, motivation, and satisfaction
include:
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Work provides a sense of meaningfulness
Employees have control over part of work
Tasks are varied
Company maintains clear and consistent rules
Employees have supportive relationships with
superiors and co-workers
– Employees receive useful feedback
– Company offers opportunities for growth
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Opportunities to Achieve
• When person
lacks fair chance
to make it, he or
she may be less
than successful
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Motives, Values, and Well-being
• Approach-Approach Conflict
– Equally attracted to two activities or goals
• Avoidance-Avoidance Conflict
– Choosing between the “lesser of the evils”
• Approach-Avoidance Conflict
– One activity or goal has both positive and negative
elements
• Multiple Approach-Avoidance Conflicts
– Several choices, each with advantages and
disadvantages
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Maslow's Pyramid of Needs
• Needs arranged
hierarchically
• Low-level needs must be
met before trying to satisfy
higher-level needs
• Esteem: Status, respect,
power
• Self-actualization: Fulfill
one’s potential
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Universal Psychological Needs
• Autonomy: feeling choices are
based on true interests and values
• Competence: feeling able to master
hard challenges
• Relatedness: feeling close to others
who are important to you
• Self-esteem: self-respect
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Universal Psychological Needs
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