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Motivation
Chapter 12
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education Canada
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Chapter Outline
• The Hungry Animal: Motives to Eat
• The Social Animal: Motives to Love
• The Erotic Animal: Motives for Sex
• The Competent Animal: Motives to Achieve
• Motives, Values, and Well-Being
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Defining Motivation
• Motivation
– An inferred process within a person or animal
that causes movement either toward a goal or
away from an unpleasant situation
– Study of motivation dominated by focus on
drives: biological urges, such as those to acquire
food & water, to have sex, to seek novelty, and
to avoid cold and pain
– But motivation is more than just biological drives
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Influences on Motivation
• Motivation to reach goals may vary
depending on the source:
– Intrinsic motivation: the pursuit of an activity
for its own sake and the pleasure it brings
– Extrinsic motivation: the pursuit of an activity
for external rewards, such as money or fame
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Motives to Eat
• Research does not support the idea that
people who are overweight are emotionally
disturbed
• Heaviness not always caused by overeating
• Biological mechanisms regulate your body
weight & are influenced by genetics
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Set Point
• Set point
– Genetically influenced weight range for an individual
– maintained by biological mechanisms that regulate
food intake, fat reserves, and metabolism
– Varies about 10% in either direction
– Associated with high levels of heritability
– Related to genetically programmed basal
metabolism rate
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Obesity
• Genes are involved in some types of obesity
– E.g., Inuit of the Canadian Arctic
• Mutations in the ob gene may cause obesity in
some individuals
– Ob gene causes fat cells to secure protein called leptin
that acts on the hypothalamus and helps to regulate
appetite
– Levels of leptin most critical in early life as sets the brain
chemistry involved with eating
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The Overweight Debate
• Prevalence of obesity in Canada
– Approximately 26% of women & 35% of men
– Has been increasing over the years
– Can’t be accounted for solely by genetics
• Is it weight or fitness?
– Many researchers believe that individuals who are
overweight and physically fit are actually healthier than
individuals who are sedentary and thin
– Lack of fitness related to greater health risks
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Culture, Gender, & Weight
• Cultural changes linked to increased weight:
– Increased abundance of fast food
– Habit of eating high-calorie food on the run
– Use of energy-saving devices
– Speed & convenience of driving rather than walking
– Growing sizes of typical food servings of food & drink
– Preference for watching television & videos rather than
doing anything active
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Culture of Consumption
• Eating habits & activity levels shaped by
cultural customs and standards of ideal body
– Fat may be sign of health & affluence in men;
sexual desirability in women
– English Canadians hold negative attitudes
towards obese people
– People on farms used to eat for intrinsic reasons
but now more extrinsic motives
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Gender & the Ideal Body
• Cultural ideals for women have been getting
thinner, with large breasts but no hips
• Cultural ideals for men are to have strong,
muscular bodies
• Changes in body norms shift with gender & social
roles (e.g., woman’s role being home or work?)
• Differences in weight satisfaction between men &
women influence weight norms
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Eating Disorders
• Anorexia
– An eating disorder characterized by fear of
being fat, a distorted body image, radically
reduced consumption of food, and emaciation
• Bulimia
– An eating disorder characterized by episodes of
excessive eating (bingeing) followed by forced
vomiting or use of laxatives (purging)
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Motives to Love
• Types of love:
– Passionate (romantic) love
• Love characterized by a whirlwind of intense
emotions and sexual passion
• It is the stuff of crushes, infatuations, “love at first
sight”, and the early stage of love affairs
– Companionate love
• Love characterized by affection and trust
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Motives to Love
•
Biology of Love
– Neurological origins of love begin in infancy
with attachment relationships with mother
– Key neurotransmitters & hormones involved in
pleasure and reward involved in mother-baby
and adult bonds
•
E.g., oxytocin & endorphins
– Similar patterns of neurological activation
in the brain
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Motives to Love
•
Psychology of Love
– Proximity effect: the people who are nearest to
you geographically are most likely to be
dearest to you too
– Similarity effect: similarity in looks, attitudes,
beliefs, values, personality, and interests, is
attractive to human beings
•
We tend to choose friends and loved ones who
are most like us
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Attachment Theory of Love
• Attachment theory of love
– People’s attachment styles as adults derive in
large part from how their parents cared for them
• Secure: rarely jealous, compassionate, helpful (64%)
• Avoidant: distrust others and avoid intimate
attachments (25%)
• Anxious: agitated in relationships, clingy, fear
partners will leave them (11%)
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Ingredients of Love
• Love argued to involve three key ingredients:
– Passion: based on emotion
– Intimacy: based on deep knowledge
– Commitment: based on loyalty
• In most relationships, romantic passion
subsides and intimacy increases
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Gender, Culture, & Love
• Men and women respond similarly to:
– Love at first sight, passionate love, companionate love,
unrequited love, being securely or insecurely attached,
or suffering when a relationship ends
• Men and women do differ in how they express love
– Males more likely to express love in actions
– Women more likely to express love in words
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Motives for Sex
• Human sexuality influenced by biological,
psychological, and cultural factors
– Canadian culture relatively sexually active
– Canadians have sex at earlier ages than
teens in other countries
– Average Canadian adult has sex around
150 times a year
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Biology of Desire
• Testosterone promotes sexual desire in both
sexes, but relationship unclear
• Studies of orgasm have indicated:
– Men and women are sexually similar but women have
lesser sexual capacity (Kinsey)
– Physiological changes during sexual arousal and
orgasm similar in both sexes, but female sexual
capacity greater due to ability to have multiple
orgasms (Masters & Johnson)
• Much more individual variation than previously
thought
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The Sex Drive
• Men display higher rates of almost every kind of
sexual behaviour
• Hormones & brain circuits involved in sexual
behaviour differ between sexes
– Males: wiring for sex overlaps with dominance &
aggression
– Females: wiring for sex overlaps with nurturance
• Other researchers argue that differences in
sexuality stem from roles and expectations
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The Psychology of Desire
• Six primary psychological motives for sex:
– Enhancement, intimacy, coping, self-affirmation,
partner approval, peer approval
• Men endorse these motives more than women,
except for intimacy (both sexes the same)
• Extrinsic motives associated with risky sexual
behaviour, and consenting to unwanted sex
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Sexual Coercion & Rape
• Only 6% of sexual assaults in Canada are reported to
police, yet rates of victimization among undergraduates
may be around 29%
– Most victims know their attackers, definitions of sexual
coercion differ between men and women
• What causes some men to rape?
–
–
–
–
Peer approval
Anger, revenge, or desire to dominate/humiliate the victim
Narcissism and hostility toward women
Contempt for the victim & a sadistic pleasure in inflicting pain
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The Culture of Desire
• Cultures transmit rules & regulations about sex to
members by:
– Gender roles
• Collections of rules that determine the proper
attitudes and behaviour for men and women
– Sexual scripts
• Set of implicit rules that specify proper sexual
behaviour for a person in a given situation, varying
with the person’s gender, age, religion, social
status, and peer group
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Gender, Culture, & Sex
• Evolutionary psychologists argue that gender roles
& sexual scripts shaped by natural selection
• Social & cultural psychologists argue these reflect
a culture’s economic, demographic, & social
arrangements
• Sexual partners often chosen by proximity
(availability) & similarity
– Differences in sexual behaviour evidenced when either
men or women are scarce
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Biology & Sexual Orientation
• Psychological explanations for homosexuality
unsupported
• Homosexual behaviour documented in over 450
species and may be somewhat heritable in men
• Biological inquiries have involved:
– Prenatal exposure to androgens
– The “brother effect”
– Male & female odours that activate sexual response
system in hypothalamus
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Motives to Achieve
• Why are we motivated to work?
– Not fully explained by meeting survival needs
• Motivated by a need for achievement
– A learned motive to meet personal standards of
success and excellence in a chosen area
– Originally measured by variation of the
projective Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)
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The Importance of Goals
•
A goal is likely to improve motivation &
performance when:
1. The goal is specific
2. The goal is challenging but achievable
3. The goal is framed in terms of getting what
you want rather than avoiding what you do
not want
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Types of Goals
• Approach goals
– Goals framed in terms of desired outcomes or
experiences, such as learning to scuba dive
• Avoidance goals
– Goals framed in terms of avoiding unpleasant
experiences, such as trying not to look foolish in
public
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Motives of Accomplishment
• There are additional motives that lead us to
certain accomplishments:
• Immortality
• Security
• Truth
• Duty
• Justice
• Excellence
• Autonomy
• Greed
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Effects of Work on Motivation
• How does the work that we do & the
conditions that we do it in nurture or crush
our motivation to succeed?
– Environmental factors are key
– Working conditions may increase work
motivation and satisfaction, and reduce the
chances of emotional burnout
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Good Working Conditions
1. The work feels meaningful & important to employees
2. Employees have control over many aspects of their work
3. Tasks are varied rather than repetitive
4. The company maintains clear & consistent rules
5. Employees have supportive relationships with their
superiors and co-workers
6. Employees receive useful feedback about their work so
they know accomplishments and areas of improvement
7. The company offers opportunities for employees to learn
& advance
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Working Conditions
• Companies that foster these conditions tend to
have more productive & satisfied employees
• Surprisingly, work motivation is not related to
the amount of money you get, but how & when
you get paid
– Incentive pay: bonuses that are given upon
completion of a goal rather than as an automatic
raise
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Opportunities to Achieve
• Working condition that affects achievement
is having the opportunity to achieve
– Failures at work often attributed to lack of
internal drives, but may not have been given fair
chance to succeed
– Gender biases in occupations may influence
motivations to work in particular fields
• Stereotypes inhibit aspirations
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Work Motivation
• Work motivation &
satisfaction depend on
the right fit between
qualities of the
individual and
conditions of the work
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Motives, Values, & Well-Being
• People motivated by intrinsic satisfaction of
activities are happier than those motivated by
extrinsic rewards only
• Intrinsic motivation can be influenced by the goals
we set for ourselves
• Goals are determined by our values about what is
important in life
• Emotional stress may arise when the goals and
values you choose are in conflict
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Three Motivational Conflicts
1. Approach-approach conflicts
– Conflicts that occur when you are equally attracted
to two or more possible goals
2. Avoidance-avoidance conflicts
– Conflicts that require you to choose the lesser of two
evils because you dislike both alternatives
3. Approach-avoidance conflicts
– Conflicts that occur when a single activity or goal
has both a positive and a negative aspect
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Hierarchy of Needs
• Maslow proposed that people’s motives formed
a pyramid called a hierarchy of needs that
reflected the relative importance of different
motives
–
–
–
–
–
Need for self-actualization (top level)
Esteem needs: self- and other -respect
Social needs: belonging, affection
Security needs: shelter, safety
Survival needs: food, sleep, water (bottom level)
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End of Chapter 12
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education Canada
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