Download Germany (unification)

HIGHER HISTORY
Bearsden Academy
GERMANY
Growth of Nationalism and the Unification of Germany 1815-1871
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What will I do?
You will analyse the factors contributing towards complex historical developments, by
drawing well-reasoned conclusions supported by evidence.
You will be required to give evidence of:
 An ability to analyse the factors contributing towards complex historical
developments, by drawing articulate, reasoned conclusions that have supporting
evidence
 descriptions, explanations and analysis demonstrating detailed and accurate
knowledge and understanding of complex issues within an area of European and
World history
You will cover the following learning outcomes:
Outcome 1
The learner will:
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1.1
1.2
1.3
Evaluate the factors contributing to historical developments by:
Interpreting complex factors which have contributed to a
historical development
Drawing a well-reasoned conclusion on the factors contributing to
a historical development
Using detailed evidence to support a conclusion
Outcome 2
The learner will:
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2.1
2.2
2.3
Draw on and apply knowledge and understanding of complex
European and world historical issues by:
Describing, in detail and with accuracy, the context of a
European and world historical issue
Explaining, with accuracy, a European and world historical issue
Analysing a European and world historical issue
Also covered are:
1 Literacy
1.1 Reading
1.2 Writing
4 Employability, enterprise and citizenship
4.6 Citizenship
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5 Thinking skills
5.3 Applying
5.4 Analysing and
evaluating
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In this unit you will focus on:
Germany, 1815–1939
A study of the growth of nationalism in nineteenth century Germany leading to
the overcoming of obstacles to unification of the nation by 1871, and the
development of extreme nationalism after 1918
Mandatory content
Illustrative areas
1. An evaluation of the
reasons for the growth of
nationalism in Germany,
1815–50
Economic factors; the Zollverein; cultural factors;
military weakness; effects of French Revolution
and Napoleonic Wars; role of the Liberals.
2. An assessment of the
degree of growth of
nationalism in Germany, up
to 1850
Supporters of nationalism — educated middle
class, Liberals; opponents of nationalism;
attitudes of peasants; political turmoil in the
1840s; the Frankfurt Parliament, divisions; the
collapse of revolution in Germany, 1848–49.
3. An evaluation of the
obstacles to German
unification, 1815–50
Divisions among the nationalists; Austrian
strength; German princes; religious differences;
economic differences; indifference of the
masses; resentment towards Prussia.
4. An evaluation of the
reasons why unification was
achieved in Germany, by
1871
Prussian military strength; Prussian economic
strength; the decline of Austria; the role of
Bismarck; the attitude of other states; actions of
Napoleon III.
5. An evaluation of the
reasons why the Nazis
achieved power, in 1933
Weaknesses of Weimar Republic; resentment
towards the Treaty of Versailles; economic
difficulties; social and economic divisions; the
appeal of the Nazis after 1928; the role of Hitler;
weaknesses and mistakes of opponents.
6. An evaluation of the
reasons why the Nazis were
able to stay in power, 1933–
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Establishment of a totalitarian state; the crushing
of opposition; fear and state terrorism; social
controls; propaganda; successful foreign policy;
economic policies; social policies.
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Unification of Germany - Timeline
1618 - 1648
The Thirty Years' War dividing central Europe into Catholic and
Protestant countries
1803 - 1815
The Napoleonic Wars (1803–1815). Napoleon conquers central Europe
and divides the old Holy Roman Empire of 400 states into just 16.
1815
Congress of Vienna: 39 states made up the German Confederation
and was chaired by Austria (Austrian chief minister Metternich).
1818
Prussian Customs Union created, abolishing internal tariffs in Prussia
and allowing her to develop her economy.
1819
Carlsbad Decrees – laws used by Metternich to restrict press and
University freedoms, stopping spread of nationalist ideas.
1834
Zollverein created – a customs union of German states (not including
Austria) that eventually allowed Prussia to dominate the German
states economically. Started with 18 states. (by 1836 there were 25!)
1848
March 13th – Metternich forced to resign in Austria. March – Riots in
Berlin. Initially these radical revolutionaries were supported by King of
Prussia, Frederick Wilhelm IV.
May – Frankfurt Parliament (aka National Assembly) begins – 596
liberals elected from the German Confederation meet to plan a
constitution for a unified Germany.
Nov – Frederick Wilhelm IV rejected revolutions (became a
conservative/ reactionary) and regained control of Berlin.
1849
March – Frankfurt Parliament agree on a constitution for Germany
(‘Kleindeutschland’, without Austria), led by the King of Prussia.
April – Wilhelm IV, King of Prussia rejects the offer of a ‘crown from the
gutter’.
June – Frankfurt Parliament ends. Erfurt Union – Prussia proposed
leading a German Union, excluding Austria. This is rejected by Austria
and Prussia is forced to back down
1860
New Prussian Minister of War Von Roon introduces military reforms;
longer military service, Army twice as big, etc.
1861
Wilhelm I becomes King of Prussia.
1862
Otto von Bismarck made ‘Minister-President’ (Prime
Minister/Chancellor) of Prussia.
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1864
Jan – Prussian-Danish War Austria and Prussia go to war together
against Denmark over the Schleswig-Holstein issue
July – Denmark surrenders.
1865
Aug – Convention of Gastein – Austria gets Holstein (nearer to Prussia),
Prussia gets Schleswig. Bismarck knows that this solution will eventually
lead to conflict with Austria.
1866
Austro-Prussian War – Bismarck provokes disagreements between
Austria and Prussia over Holstein. 24th June – Seven Weeks’ War begins
between Austria and Prussia.
3rd July – Austria badly defeated by Prussia at Battle of Sadowa.
August – Peace of Prague ends the war.
1867
July – North German Confederation created by Bismarck, made
Prussia the most powerful German state. Southern German states
(e.g. Bavaria) still follow Austria’s lead.
1870
Franco-Prussian War
Feb – Hohenzollern Candidate crisis – Bismarck offends the French by
attempting to place Leopold of Hohenzollern (a member of King
Wilhelm’s family) on the throne of Spain.
July 13th – The Ems Telegram is published, edited by Bismarck to look
as if King Wilhelm was rude to French Ambassador whilst discussing
the Spanish throne issue.
July 19th – France declares war – Franco-Prussian War begins.
Sept 1st – French defeated by Prussia at Battle of Sedan, Napoleon III
captured.
Oct – French Army surrenders at Metz.
Nov – Southern German states (apart from Austria) agree to join a
German Empire, influenced by nationalist excitement and threat of
France
1871
Jan 18th – German Empire declared in Palace of Versailles
Germany created!
Wilhelm I is Kaiser, Bismarck is Chancellor.
Jan 28th – France signs an Armistice ending the war.
May – Treaty of Frankfurt. France gives up Alsace and Lorraine and
has to pay Germany £200 million.
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Introduction
Before 1871, Germany, as we know it, did not exist.
Prior to 1815 the area known today as Germany, was
part of the old Holy Roman Empire. There were more
than 400 tiny states that made up this empire and
each had its own autocratic leader.
Napoleon
Bonaparte (also known as Napoleon I), invaded,
defeated and occupied much of central Europe from
1803 onwards. Napoleon condensed this huge
collection of 400 states into just sixteen; naming the
sixteen, the Confederation of the Rhine.
The invasion of
the Holy Roman
Empire (HRE) by
Napoleon's French Empire and the subsequent
dissolution of the HRE, brought about a German
liberal nationalism. This was advocated primarily by
the
German
middle-class
bourgeoisie
who
supported the creation of a modern German
nation-state based upon liberal democracy, while
opposing absolutism (i.e. a monarch having
absolute power).
Fichte (a German nationalist) brought German
nationalism forward as a response to the French
occupation of German territories in his Addresses to
the German Nation (1808), evoking a sense of
German distinctiveness in language, tradition, and
literature that composed a common identity.
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Europe in 1789
Boundary of Holy Roman
Empire
Napoleon was eventually defeated in 1815,
and, determined to rid central Europe from as
much of Napoleon’s legacy as possible, the
leaders of the central European states held
the Congress of Vienna; where German
nationalists tried but failed to establish
Germany as a nation-state.
Instead, the Confederation of the Rhine was
dissolved and the collection of sixteen states
replaced with thirty-nine, forming the German
Confederation. This was a loose collection of
independent German states that lacked
strong federal institutions Although Germany
was not yet united, this redesign from 400
down to sixteen, and then to thirty-nine, left a
clearer Germanic region with clearly defined
borders with their neighbours, Russia and
France. This clearer geographical region
arguably set the scene for a future united
Germany.
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Economic integration between the German states was achieved by the creation of the
Zollverein ("Custom Union") of Germany in 1818. The move to create the Zollverein was led
by Prussia and the Zollverein was dominated by Prussia, causing resentment and tension
between Austria and Prussia.
Despite Nationalism in Germany growing substantially from
1815 onwards, the German states still were not able to unite
until 1871. Many obstacles existed that prevented Germany
uniting, including the obstinate Metternich (Austrian Minister
of Foreign Affairs), and divisions amongst the states. Both
religion and alignment with larger, more powerful states
divided the minor German states. Opposition from other
European powers with the threat of war made it difficult to
bring about unification. There even existed divisions
amongst the Nationalists (those people who were angling
for German unification), as it could not be decided what a
unified Germany would look like; who would be included,
who would be excluded, who would rule it? These were just
some of the questions that Nationalists were faced with, and without the answers, they
were unable to move forward.
Many argue that without Otto von Bismarck, unification would not have been possible. He
was a ‘Junker’ (the Prussian name for an aristocratic
landowner from old Prussia in the east) and was
determined to ensure Prussia was dominant in the
German area and some argue it was his mission to unite
the German states under Prussian rule from the
beginning. Upon his 1862 appointment by King Wilhelm I
as Minister President of Prussia, Bismarck provoked three
short, decisive wars against Denmark, Austria and France,
and aligned the smaller German states behind Prussia in
defeating his arch-enemy France.
In 1871 he formed the German Empire with himself as
Chancellor, while retaining control of Prussia. His
diplomacy of realpolitik and powerful rule at home
gained him the nickname the "Iron Chancellor". Whilst Bismarck was clearly extremely
significant in the unification of Germany, a more modern historiography takes into
consideration external factors that can also be credited with having a part to play in
unification.
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As the map of central Europe stood in 1850, Prussia competed with Austria for dominance
over a series of small principalities fiercely keen on maintaining their independence and
distinctive characteristics. Prussia stretched from modern-day Lithuania to central
Germany. Prussia also controlled the German lands around the Rhine River in the west. In
between, from Denmark to Switzerland, lay small provinces that Bismarck needed to
incorporate under the Prussian crown to create a viable German Empire.
In 1862, Bismarck reorganized the Prussian army and
improved training in preparation for war. In 1864, he
constructed an alliance with Austria to fight Denmark over
Denmark's southern provinces of Schleiswig and Holstein.
Prussia received Schleiswig while Austria administered
Holstein. That situation, however, could not stand for long,
as Austrian Holstein was now surrounded by Prussian lands.
Bismarck provoked a conflict with Austria over an
unrelated border dispute and in the subsequent Seven Weeks' War--named for its brevity-Prussia crushed the collapsing Austrian army. The peace settlement transferred Holstein to
Prussia and forced Austria to officially remove itself from all German affairs.
With Austria out of Bismarck's way, his next obstacle was the skepticism of the southern
provinces. Overwhelmingly Catholic and anti-militaristic, the southern provinces doubted
Prussia's commitment to a united Germany of all
provinces. Prussia's Protestantism and historic
militarism made the gulf between north and south
quite serious. Therefore, Bismarck turned to
realpolitik to unite the Germanic provinces by
constructing a war against a common enemy. In
1870, Bismarck forged a note from the French
ambassador, implying that the ambassador had
insulted the Prussian king. After he leaked this letter
to both populations, the people of France and Prussia, roused by nationalist sentiment,
rose up in favor of war. As Bismarck hoped, the southern provinces rallied to Prussia's side
without any hesitation. In July 1870, France declared war on Prussia.
Within a matter of weeks of fighting in Alsace-Lorraine, France lost this Franco-Prussian
War. Alsace-Lorraine was transferred to Germany in the peace settlement, allowing
Prussia to declare the German Empire, or Second Reich, on January 21, 1871.
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Topic 1
Why did Nationalism grow in the
German States after 1815?
Learning intentions:
To evaluate the reasons for the growth of nationalism in Germany, 1815–50 and come to a
conclusion about the most important reason
Essay Factors
 Cultural factors
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the Romantic movement - the influence of writers and thinkers and of a
common culture
the unifying force of language
the influence of students e.g. the Hambacherfest festival 1830.
 Economic factors
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–
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Prussian economic expansion and the attitudes of Businessmen,
the Zollverein
Railway and road development.
 Political factors
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–
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the impact of the French Revolution and Napoleonic Wars,
the 1840 Rhine crisis
the 1848 revolutions.
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Information
After a quarter of a century of war instigated by Napoleonic France, Europe had
witnessed many changes in terms of rulers, governments and territories. During this time
ideas of nationalism and liberalism spread throughout Europe. German nationalism was
gaining ground through political, cultural and economic beliefs of a greater and stronger
nation bonded by a common language.
Task
1. What is meant by the term “nationalism”? Discuss with your group and give as full
and detailed a definition as you can.
2. Read first paragraph (page 82) and discuss with class
3. Unscramble the words in the box and use them to copy and complete the passage
below.
dripe
sivral
negram
gelganua
rultcue
deorgeranis
voreluniot
ginnoij
noram
poruee
yetquali,
rafcen,
detinu,
yemen
In the immediate years before 1815, E_ _ _ _ _ was dominated by _ _ _ _ _ _ under the
leadership of Napoleon. Napoleon was a gifted military commander who had led his
country to victory against their _ _ _ _ _ _ . One result of this was control of the _ _ _ _ _ _
states. These states were not _ _ _ _ _ _ . but they did have some things in common such as
the same _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _. The states also enjoyed the same _ _ _ _ _ _ _.
Napoleon was defeated in 1815, but he had _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ the states from 400
individual states into 16. The 400 German states had previously been grouped together in
the Holy _ _ _ _ _ Empire. This process helped to inspire the German people to think about
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ together. Napoleon was also a common _ _ _ _ _ who brought the states closer
together in their hatred of him.
One further effect of Napoleon’s rule was the spreading of the ideas of the French
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ which had happened in 1789. The French had overthrown their king and
ideas of _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ and nationalism spread across Europe. Nationalism is having _ _ _ _ _
in your country.
4. Quiz Quiz Trade on Napoleon – complete the Quiz Quiz Trade and then answer as
many of the questions as you can on the sheet.
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1. Cultural Factors
The German states possessed many of the pre-requisites to form a united nation state and
these forces gathered strength as the 19th century progressed. These were a common
racial background, common traditions, heritage, culture and language. This feeling is
reflected in the writings of late 18th century and early 19th century intellectuals eg Herder,
Hegel and Fichte. Cultural Nationalism – unity is more important than individual rights and
that what mattered was the preservation by the State of German identity and culture.
The Romantic Movement
- the influence of writers and thinkers and of a common culture
According to the Romantic movement, emotion supercedes reason. In Germany, the
influence of the Romantic movement encouraged feelings of nationalism. In this sense it
promoted the Germanic culture and
encouraged unification under the banner of
a shared culture. Many turned for inspiration
to landscape and heroic figures from the
past. In Germany this took the form of a
revival of interest in German history, folklore
and myths; especially the idea of an
enduring and older German identity that
had defied the Romans. This ultimately
strengthened the appeal of nationalism. In
particular, the Romantic movement greatly
influenced the educated classes in the
towns. There was distinctive German
literature – writers such as Hegel, Goethe
and Schiller recognised common German
characteristics – things that identified a
person as German. There were also German
folk tales compiled and published by the
Brothers Grimm. The first collection of fairy
tales ‘Children's and Household Tales’ was published in 1812 and it contained more than
200 fairy tales, which were popular. Whilst few Germans could read, these simple German
folk tales could be told aloud and were important inspiring a feeling of being German.
Poets such as Goethe and musicians like Beethoven made educated Germans aware of
a shared identity.
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Common Language
- the unifying force of language
In 1815 there were strong pro–German feelings as most people within the borders of the
old Holy Roman Empire spoke German, this was a powerful unifying force. The biggest
cultural factor was undoubtedly language which helped to unite all German speaking
peoples and gave them an identity.
“Through a common language and through common national characteristics
which unite the German, they are separate from others…those who speak the
same language are joined by a multitude of invisible bonds…they understand each
other and have the power to make themselves understood more and more clearly;
they belong to one another and are by nature one and inseparably whole”
Mitchell
Whenever a separate language is found there is also a separate nation which has
the right to manage its affairs independently and rule itself.”
Fichte
Influence of students
- e.g. the Hambacherfest festival 1830.
This cultural flowering inspired middle class intellectuals who were active in the universities
(student nationalist societies were set up - “burschenschaften”) promoting the ideas of
nationalism and liberalism. In 1817 a national and liberal student society was founded for
all Germans - Metternich tried to close this down as part of the Carlsbad decrees of 1819 but this had opposite effect and contributed to growth of resistance to Austria. For
example, in 1817 in Wartburg there was a nationalist demonstration of some 500 students
involving burning anti nationalist books. In Hambach in 1832 there was a nationalist
gathering of some 25,000 students and in 1833 there was an unsuccessful uprising by
students. This clearly shows that despite the Carlsbad Decrees, nationalism amongst
students continued to grow.
Task
5. Complete a storyboard on the German States in 1815. Your teacher will give you
the template.
6. Read pages 85-86. Describe the actions and attitudes of the students. How did the
authorities deal with signs of nationalism amongst the universities?
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7. Why does Stiles argue that “Liberalism and Nationalism remained largely middle
class before 1848” (page 85)?
8. On the other hand, what evidence can you give to show that nationalist feeling
had spread to large numbers of ordinary people?
9. Expert groups.
Your teacher will divide you into groups of 4 and give each member some information to
read about cultural nationalism. Once you have read about your area, each member of
the group will then go and discuss their findings with the people in the other groups who
have been given the same task. The original group will then reconvene and each
member of the group will teach the others about their area. Decide on what you think is
the key information about cultural nationalism and then try to explain cultural nationalism
in 15 words or less using the guidelines below.

What it was.

Why people were cultural nationalists.

Evidence of nationalist feeling in the first half of the 19th century.
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2. Economic Factors
Economic Nationalism – this grew due to a belief that unity would remove the trade
barriers between states and this would allow economic growth and prosperity.
Industrialisation and Population Growth
Economic nationalism encouraged feelings of unity amongst the many German states in
the early 19th Century. Ordinary people were embracing the new opportunities for work in
the rapidly growing towns. The twin forces of urbanisation and industrialisation were
important factors for change. The population throughout the German states had
increased from 2.5 million in 1816 to over 34 million by 1840.
Attitudes of Businessmen
The existence of many different currencies, customs regulations, taxes and legal systems
highlighted the many problems faced by businesses of the time. It should be no surprise
that middle class businessmen were at the forefront of demands for a more united market
to enable them to compete with countries such as Britain.
The Zollverein
The first step towards economic unification came in the form of a customs union called
the Zollverein that provided a free trade area for the German states but excluded Austria.
“The Zollverein was a force for unity in the 1840s and therefore a focal point for
nationalistic sentiments. As a result, Prussia, despite its reactionary political
sympathies, came to be regarded by many as the natural leader of Germany.”
Stiles
Task
Read the bottom of page 83 to 84.
10. Which great German thinker of the age wanted Germany to unite for economic
reasons?
11. Who wanted an end to trade barriers and why would unification be beneficial to
them?
12. What did economists such as List, believe?
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Read page 88-90 and answer the following questions:
13. Describe the main industrial and population changes taking place in the German
states after 1815 – summarise the main changes on a mind map using colour to
identify different factors (p. 86-87)
14. How did Prussian economic expansion effect the growth of German nationalism?
15. What was the Zollverein and how did it promote nationalism?
16. Why were the railways an important factor in the economic development of the
German states?
17. In your essays, you will need to know historian’s views if you want to gain the
highest marks. Explain the views of William Carr (page 88) and Andrina Stiles (page
89) on the Zollverein and note a short phrase from each historian in your jotter.
18. Give a 60 word summary of the position of Prussia between 1815 and 1850 using
page 89-90 in the textbook. Read and then condense the key points in your own
words.
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3. Political Factors
The impact of the French Revolution and Napoleonic Wars
There was a rise in German Nationalism in reaction to the French invasion by Napoleon.
The French conscripted German men into their armies. The French badly affected
German trade by banning trade with Britain. In addition, French officials were harsh. The
result was a common enemy that the Germans were encouraged to resist. Napoleon
became a hated figure, and France an established foe. Anger and resent built and
eventually, German resistance and the war of liberation from 1813 to 1815 inspired
German patriots to aim for unification.
As a result of the French Revolution ideas of Liberalism and Nationalism spread. Liberalism
is in part, a desire for a democratic government. Therefore ‘Liberal Nationalism’ was the
desire for a united Germany with a liberal constitution that would guarantee the rights of
citizens. Many believed that the individual state princes should be removed from their
autocratic rule and Germany should be united under an elected government. This was
obviously resisted by those who were in power; however, they could not stop the spread
of Liberalism and Nationalism throughout the German states.
The 1840 Rhine crisis
This began when the French revived their claim to the Rhine as a natural frontier. This led
to widespread demonstrations throughout Germany, and forces throughout the German
states mobilised. This was significant as it was not just the states whose borders were
affected, indicating that the German states recognised a Germanic border that they had
to work together to protect against their common enemy, the French. In addition, many
working class men signed up to fight signifying it was not just the middle classes who had
nationalism sentiments!
The 1848 revolutions
Trade depression, unemployment and high food prices because of bad harvests led to
revolutions throughout Europe. Nationalists and liberals saw their chance. Everywhere, the
rulers of the small states fled. Elections were held to local assemblies and then to a
national convention to create a united Germany. This met at Frankfurt but failed to
achieve its aims. It can be said that although the Frankfurt Assembly failed, the very fact
that the Assembly was elected reflects a widespread desire for a united Germany.
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Task
Read pages 82, top of page 85, top of page 86 and chapter 7, pages 92-100.
19. Why had French invasion and occupation in the early 19th century stimulated the
growth of national feeling in the German states?
20. Among which groups was nationalism strongest?
21. What does Stiles comment about Liberalism and Nationalism (see bottom of page
85)
22. What was the event in 1840 that contradicts Stiles’ comment? Explain why.
23. Write a short paragraph that explains what happened in the 1948 revolutions.
24. What was significant about the 1948 revolutions that also suggests that Stiles was
not completely right in her comment?
Conclusion
German nationalism was established through the structure and organisation of the
Napoleonic period which replaced the Holy Roman Empire. States were reduced in
number and borders set. This was maintained following the defeat of Napoleon in 1815
and national confidence grew as a result. The Zollverein brought some stability and
improved the economy within the states. Cultural and political issues also began to
influence the desire for a national identity. The influence of Prussia as a strong power
within the region certainly encouraged the smaller states to support the idea of a greater
Germany with Prussia as a possible leader.
1. Decision making exercise – In small groups, identify 6 key factors in the growth of
German nationalism 1815-1850. Rank these factors in order of importance – which
do you think were most important in the growth of nationalism? Be ready to feed
back to the class and to explain your decision.
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Historians:
Thomson – The French revolutionaries spread liberalism by intention but created
nationalism [in the German states] by inadvertence.
McKichan – The disillusionment caused by French domination encouraged
some…Germans to long for the day when their nation would be united and free from
foreign rule
Kerr and McGonigle – the main unifying force was language
Mitchell – quotes Fichte: ‘a common language and common national characteristics
unite the Germans…those who speak the same language are joined to each other
by a multitude of invisible bonds’
Stiles – Liberalism and Nationalism remained largely middle-class before 1848
Mitchell – suggests that the most important barrier to the economic development of
the German states was political fragmentation
Carr – It would be inappropriate to see the Zollverein as the forerunner of German
political unity. Prussia was not thinking in terms of political unification when it founded
the customs union
Example Essay Questions:
[Bold/underlined = isolated factor]
How important were cultural factors in the growth of national feeling in Germany
between 1815 and 1850?
To what extent did the Zollverein stimulate nationalism in the German states before 1850?
How important were political factors in the growth of German Nationalism between 1815
and 1850?
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Topic 2
How far did Nationalism develop in
the German states by 1850?
Learning intentions:
To understand the extent to which nationalism grew in the German states by 1850
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Introduction
When the representatives of the victorious powers from the Napoleonic Wars signed the
Treaty of Vienna in 1815, they might have been forgiven for thinking that their task was
complete. The traditional rulers of the European states had been restored to power and
as far as possible the boundaries had been redrawn to turn back the clock to 1789 before
the wars with France began. The twin forces of liberalism and nationalism seemed to
have been defeated. However, it was to prove impossible to prevent growing support for
these twin ideas as events up until 1850 were to show. Some things had changed, the old
Holy Roman Empire had been replaced by the German Confederation (Bund) and under
the leadership of Austria it was unlikely to support any nationalistic revolt and indeed was
more likely to support conservatism and oppose further change.
Task
1. Read and discuss the following issues and then take notes:
 Attitude of middle Classes (Why were they in favour of unity? What role did they
take in the German states? What political freedoms did they seek?)
 Attitude of the peasants
 Sources of discontent (Town and countryside)
Stand and Deliver – In small groups of 3 or 4, you will be given one of the heading above
to learn as a group. You must identify the key points for that heading (at least 4 separate
pieces of information in each heading – 12 to learn altogether). You will learn the
information together and then be asked to report back to the rest of the class.
Task
Read and discuss ‘The Forces for change’ section (P95)
Under the heading ‘Forces for Change’ answer the following questions:
2. What happened in 1848 to add pressure for change?
3. What was the opinion of Frederick William of Prussia?
4. What action did the Frankfurt parliament take and what problems did it face?
5. Explain the issue of: (a) Austrian inclusion (Grossdeutschland)
(b) Austrian exclusion (Kleindeutschland
6. How did Austrio-Prussian rivalry affect the prospect of German unification?
7. Draw a storyboard to show what happened in the 1848 Revolutions in 6 sets of
images and text. This should give reasons, events of 1848 revolutions and outcome.
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Task
Why did the 1848 revolutions fail?
Following a class discussion take some notes based on the following:







Lack of clear aims
State authority
Lasting change
Poor organisation
Prussian influence
Self interest
Which factors do you think were most important? Rank them in order of
importance by writing a number beside each section in your notes.
The Revolutions of 1848 ultimately failed for a wide variety of reasons and German
unification was once again set back.
Task
In small groups prepare a short lesson (5-10 min) to summarize the Growth of Nationalism.
Present your lesson to the class in a style of your choice:
You could use:
- PowerPoint
- Whiteboard
- Lecture
- Interactive materials
- Quiz
This lesson must cover all of the key information from the first two chapters in the textbook.
Conclusion
Although there would seem to be growing feeling of nationalistic thoughts and beliefs
throughout the German states there remained many obstacles in the path of unification.
Austrio-Prussian rivalry hindered the emergence of a strong leader to drive unification
forward. The failure of the 1848 Revolutions and the problems within the Frankfurt
parliament proved to be major setbacks also. Political and religious divisions added to the
difficulties as did the reluctance of individual states rules to surrender their power or
territory.
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Topic 3
What were the obstacles to German
unification?
Learning intentions:
To evaluate the obstacles to unification in the German states between 1815 and 1850 and
come to a conclusion about the most important reason.
Essay Factors:






Role of the bund
Fear of Prussia
Attitude and influence of great European powers
Religious divisions
Divisions among Nationalists
Negative attitude of the German leaders
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Information
Germany in the early 19th century was an area, not a nation…
Compared to other European countries such as Britain and France, Germany is a mere
youth! The country we now know as Germany was born in 1871 when Otto Von Bismarck
the Chancellor (Prime Minister) of Prussia skilfully created a series of diplomatic crisis’s and
wars to unite the German states. However, Bismarck cannot claim sole credit for German
unification. The Germanic states had much in common, particularly language, culture
and a desire for greater economic cooperation symbolised by the Zollverein. Within these
bonds lay the potential for a powerful, united Germany.
The main question to be tackled in this section is: with so much in common why did the
German states not unite before 1871?
Task
1. a)What unites Scotland as a nation? Write down three things that you feel provides
Scottish people with their sense of ‘Scottishness’. Share your thoughts with your
group and narrow down everyone’s choices to three key things.
b) There are many Scots who support Scotland becoming independent. However,
there are also many Scots who wish to remain part of Britain. In your groups try to
identify (at least) one argument or issue that would prevent Scotland becoming
independent. For example, Scotland has been part of Britain for 300 years; why
change now? For this task you must stand and deliver- only sit down when you are
confident that anyone in the group can give feedback on the reason(s) you have
chosen.
2. Using the evidence on page 102 copy and complete this table. This will be reviewed as a
class.
Influence
Encouraging unification?
Discouraging unification?
Napoleon
The allies
Task
Read pages 102-105
26
1. Role of the Bund
Napoleon made fundamental and lasting changes
when he redrew the map of Germany. However,
after the defeat of Napoleon, the other European
powers made strenuous efforts to reverse any of
these trends which threatened their positions. Thus,
they created the German Confederation with the
autocratic princes ruling the 39 individual states.
These leaders of the 39 states that made up the
German Confederation, met to discuss issues which affected the German states and this
is known as ‘the bund’.
Whilst it could be argued that this collection of states was now a much more united body
that what existed previously, ultimately it has
actually been labelled as an entity that prevented
proper political unification, rather than one to
promote it. The structure of the Bund was a
problem, as decisions had to be unanimous (i.e.
every single member had to agree before any
action could be taken) and therefore it was
difficult for them to take action on issues. This
meant that if any suggestions of unifications were
considered, every member would have to agree
on it, in order for it to pass through. Due to vested
interests of the individual state leaders, this meant that it was extremely difficult to pass
measures that would result in a unified Germany.
Further to this, catholic Austria was given the chairmanship of the Bund. As Austria was
vehemently against German unification, this presented another barrier to the unification
of Germany.
3. Copy Ian Mitchell’s quote on page 102.
What reasons can you find on page 103 to demonstrate why Mitchell reached this
conclusion?
27
2. Religious divisions
The Thirty Years' War (1618–1648) was a series of wars principally fought in Central Europe,
involving most of the countries of
Europe. It was one of the most
destructive conflicts in European
history, and one of the longest
continuous wars in modern history.
Religion was a motivation for war as
Protestant and
Catholic states
fought. The result was that states of
central Europe, and particularly the
Germanic states, were carved up
and divided by religion. The north
was protestant whereas the south
was mainly catholic.
This meant that when questions of unification were raised,
years later, the states were divided by religion and found it
difficult to cooperate.
The loyalty of the protestant northern German states was to
protestant Prussia and the loyalty of the Catholic southern
German states was to catholic Austria. Thus, it was more
than just religion that divided the German states. The
tension and rivalry that existed between the two largest
German states exacerbated the existing religious divisions
and made the possibility of unification more problematic.
An indication of how strong the traditional cultural and
religious ties between the southern Catholic states and
Austria were came in the 1866 Austro-Prussian War. Many of the southern states fought
with Austria, despite being members of the Prussian-led Zollverein.
4. Why was religion an obstacle to the creation of a united Germany?
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3. Divisions among Nationalists
This was a question of….Grossdeutschland or Kleindeutschland?!
After the failure of the Frankfurt Parliament, Prussia put forward a plan to unify the German
states under Prussian control. The question was whether a united Germany should contain
Austria (Grossdeutschland) or leave it out (Kleindeutschland). In German, ‘gross’ means
‘large’ and ‘klein’ means small. ‘Deutschland’ means ‘Germany’.
The Prussians, as rivals of Austria, argued for Austria's exclusion.
The Austrians refused to agree with the Prussian plan since it would eliminate their
influence in German affairs. The Austrians persuaded the Bund's Federal Diet to threaten
sanctions against Prussia.
In 1850, with Russians supporting Austria, the Prussians backed down. Another attempt at
a unified Germany had failed. Clearly Austria was still more politically powerful than
Prussia at this stage.
5. a) Copy the definitions of Grossdeutschland and Kleindeutschland.
b) What difficulty did these two ideas create for a united Germany?
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4. Negative attitude of the
German leaders
Throughout the 1840s many of the 39 German states were under pressure from nationalist
and liberal demonstrators wanting greater political representation and reform. The
governments of the states were all aristocratic, they all sought to preserve the inherited
powers and privileges of their class. This type of government is often called the “ancient
regime”.
The reformers recognised that a unified Germany with popular elections and a
constitution would be the best way of guaranteeing political freedoms. However, many
German princes feared that if the states were unified they would lose power and
influence over their own territories, such as Prussia's King Frederick William IV, and thus
opposed unification on nationalist terms. Their desire to hold on to their power can be
referred to as ‘self preservation’.
This opposition from the German princes can be seen when in 1849, rulers were quick to
withdraw their support delegates for the Frankfurt Parliament when it was clear that the
revolutions were over.
6. Why were the leaders of the German states against unification?
30
5. Attitude and influence of
great European powers

Austria
The Austrian empire was extremely powerful in Europe and was competing politically and
economically with the 39 German states. German nationalism might lead to unification of
the states. This would make them stronger and more of a threat to Austria.
Nationalism and liberalism were two political philosophies that usually went hand-in-hand
at this time. The arch-conservative Austrian Chancellor Prince Metternich was very much
aware of the dangers of such philosophies. 20% of the people in the Austrian empire
were German. The Austrian Emperor feared nationalism might make them want to break
away and join Germany. This would leave Austria weaker and cause other national
groups in the Empire to demand their independence. Nationalism, if allowed to spread
unchecked, could potentially lead to the disintegration of the vast Austro-Hungarian
Empire. He was also keen to ensure that Austria would not be excluded from German
affairs by the creation of some sort of Kleindeutschland. There are several clear instances
of Austrian opposition to German nationalism; the two most important coming in 1819 and
1850.
In 1819 the Austrians passed the notorious Carlsbad Decrees which effectively suppressed
the student Burschenscaften which had been flourishing in German universities since the
end of the Napoleonic Wars. These nationalist organisations had been responsible for
nothing more serious than a few demonstrations and the burning of an effigy of
Metternich at Wartburg in 1817. However, Metternich recognised the spirit of these
organisations and was quick to deal with it when given the excuse in 1819 when the
member of one of the Burschenshaften murdered the anti-liberal writer and Tsarist agent
Kotzebue. The Carsbad Decrees, as F. McKichan stated effectively suppressed German
nationalism ‘for a generation’.
In 1850, after recovering from the revolutions of 1848-49 the new Austrian Chancellor
Scwartzernburg forced the Prussians to accept the ‘humiliation’ of the Treaty of Olmutz.
This meant that the ‘Efrurt Union’ (a Prussian-led attempt to replace the Bund and unite
the German states on the terms of their rulers) was abandoned. Thus it is clear that while
Austria remained strong, the prospects for the unification of the German states were slim.
Before 1850 opposition from Austria was arguably the main stumbling block for German
nationalists in their attempts to unite the German states.
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
France and Russia
These countries feared that a strong, united Germany would be a political, economic
and military rival to them. The role of France was significant as an obstacle as she was
Germany’s enemy and following the defeat of Napoleon and the creation of the
German Confederation, still wanted to keep the old Holy Roman Empire in check. France
threatened to expand her territory into the German states border and therefore opposed
German unification, since a united Germany would be strong and more difficult to fight
against. The French felt threatened by the possibility of a strong German state on its
borders and so was a major obstacle to German nationalism and unification, so much so,
that it would require a major war against them before unification could be achieved.
Russia’s clear opposition can be seen when Russia supported Austria (even with a promise
of military support) in 1850 with Treaty of Olmutz, which forced Prussia to abandon the
Erfurt Union.
7. Why did Austria not want a united Germany? Provide (at least) two reasons.
8. Why was the idea of German unification unpopular with the Great Powers of
Europe?
9. What economic advantages did Prussia have over its Austrian rival?
10. Explain the view of Prince Metternich on page 105.
32
6. Fear of Prussia
It seemed unlikely at this stage, that a democratic government would rule a united
Germany, if, and when it happened. Thus, if they were to unify, there could only be one
person in charge. Prussia, as the dominant state, would be the prime candidate. Some of
the states resented Prussian progress and many of the smaller (in particular, catholic)
states feared Prussian domination; thus did not support unification.
Prussia in 1861
11. Read the small paragraph on page 105 under the blue box. Write a short
paragraph to explain why the fear of Prussia was an obstacle to unification
12. How important do you think fear of Prussia was, as an obstacle, and why?
33
13. Using the information you have reviewed and the evidence on page 105, copy
and complete the spider diagram below. This will be peer assessed and your
teacher will also check. Is there anything the person beside you has not included or
mistaken? Use colour to identify each of the different sections.
Internal disagreements/ self
preservation
Religion
Role of Austria
Obstacles to German
unification
France and
Russia
The Bund
Fear of Prussia
Extension- if this is the answer, what is the question?
Example answer- Holy Roman Empire.
Example question- What Empire included many of the German states before 1792?
1) Vienna 1815.
2) Confederation of the Rhine.
3) Representatives of 39 German states
4) The Thirty Years War.
5) Britain, Russia and Austria.
6) Coal and iron.
7) Fear of Prussia.
Recap Tasks
Quiz quiz trade/hot seating (both in staff shared area)
34
Conclusion
Napoleon- shaper of Europe Thirty Years War Emergence of Prussia
(Take down this section as a note or create your own summary from this section of text)
The key obstacles to achieving unification were within and out with the control of the
German states. The legacy of Napoleon was important as was the attitude of future
French leaders. Napoleon’s actions both encouraged and delayed the creation of a
modern German state. His reorganisation of the Holy Roman Empire into the
Confederation of the Rhine created a model on which a unified German state could be
based. However, the allies who defeated Napoleon were determined to make a clean
start and dissolved the Confederation, replacing it with the Bund (which helped to keep
the German states divided)
Napoleon’s successors were determined to prevent German unification as they did not
want to see the emergence of a strong country near her eastern border and they also
wanted the lands of the southern German states.
Within the German states there was a selfish desire amongst the rulers to maintain their
personal power. The Bund was a tool that helped to suppress German nationalism due to
the dominance of Austria who opposed a united Germany. In addition, the rule of
unanimous decisions made it a ‘talking shop’ where little could be achieved.
Religion was also an obstacle, and again centred on Austria whose Catholicism gave it a
role of protection to the southern Germanic states who shared their faith. The same was
true of the Protestant northern states that saw the powerful Prussian state as their
guardian.
The power of Prussia was also a factor which delayed unification. The smaller Germanic
states were afraid of Prussia and suspected that Prussia wanted to dominate them. They
therefore, usually took the side of Austria in the Bund to improve their own security.
Therefore, there were a number of diverse and challenging obstacles to those who
sought a united Germany. The obstacles were religious, historical and political in nature.
35
Historians:
Lee – most historians have judged the Confederation to be weak and ineffective, as
well as an obstacle to German nationalist aspirations.
Mitchell argues, the Bund was more a means to perpetuate the division of Germany
than to unite it. Therefore, it can be seen that the structure of the Bund was a
significant barrier to unification between 1815 and 1850.
Kerr and McGonigle – The smaller states resented Prussia’s progress and were also
fearful of being dominated by their large neighbour…therefore tended to side with
Austria
A.J.P. Taylor – the Frankfurt Parliament failed because it suffered from too much
experience rather than too little (as a result it took a long time to decide anything by
the time they had made a decision it was too late)
Kerr and McGonigle – Without clear aims, decisive leadership and an armed force to
enforce its decisions, the Frankfurt Parliament had been unable to fulfil its
revolutionary arms. To many it seemed that the opportunity to create a liberal, united
Germany had been missed
Sample essay questions:
[Bold/underlined = isolated factor]
To what extent were religious divisions in Germany the main obstacle to unification
between 1815 and 1850?
Resentment towards Prussia among the German states was the main obstacle to German
unification before 1850. How valid is this view?
How far can it be argued that disagreement amongst German nationalists was the main
barrier to unification?
36
Topic 1
Why was Germany united by 1871?
Learning intentions:
To evaluate the reasons for the unification of Germany in 1871 and come to a conclusion
about the most important reason
Essay Factors






Bismarck
Prussian economic strength
Prussian military strength
Decline of Austria
Attitude of foreign states
Actions of Napoleon III
37
Information
“The great questions of the day will not be settled by means of speeches and majority
decisions but by iron and blood.” Otto Von Bismarck (Minister President of Prussia from
1862-1890)
BISMARCK- THE MASTER STATESMAN
THE PRUSSIAN ARMY
Otto Von Bismarck was the key politician to oversee German unification. Bismarck
dominated Europe between 1864 and 1890. During his long career he used both
diplomacy and war to advance Prussian power with a view to uniting Germany under its
leadership. The approach Bismarck used to this end was called Realpolitik (practical
politics, decided more by the urgent needs of the country, political party, etc., than by
morals or principles). Bismarck was a ruthless, far-seeing and shrewd politician, but one
who enjoyed a number of advantages that assisted him in his eventual success.
“Bismarck’s task of unifying Germany was made easier by circumstance. If he played his
hand with great skill, it was a good one in the first place.” Mosse.
Watch:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=j3k724JX-PY
or
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_ng8UC4Z1BY (till 04:14)
38
This is a recap of some of the information that you read in the beginning of the booklet.
Read this again to refresh your knowledge.
Many argue that without Otto von Bismarck, unification would not have been possible. He
was a ‘Junker’ (the Prussian name for an aristocratic landowner from old Prussia in the
east) and was determined to ensure Prussia was dominant in the German area and some
argue it was his mission to unite the German states under Prussian rule from the beginning.
Upon his 1862 appointment by King Wilhelm I as Minister President of Prussia, Bismarck
provoked three short, decisive wars against Denmark, Austria and France, and aligned
the smaller German states behind Prussia in defeating his arch-enemy France.
In 1871 he formed the German Empire with himself as Chancellor, while retaining control
of Prussia. His diplomacy of realpolitik and powerful rule at home gained him the
nickname the "Iron Chancellor". Whilst Bismarck was clearly extremely significant in the
unification of Germany, a more modern historiography takes into consideration external
factors that can also be credited with having a part to play in unification.
As the map of central Europe stood in 1850, Prussia competed with Austria for dominance
over a series of small principalities fiercely keen on maintaining their independence and
distinctive characteristics. Prussia stretched from modern-day Lithuania to central
Germany. Prussia also controlled the German lands
around the Rhine River in the west. In between, from
Denmark to Switzerland, lay small provinces that Bismarck
needed to incorporate under the Prussian crown to create
a viable German Empire.
In 1862, Bismarck reorganized the Prussian army and
improved training in preparation for war. In 1864, he
constructed an alliance with Austria to fight Denmark over
Denmark's southern provinces of Schleiswig and Holstein. Prussia received Schleiswig while
Austria administered Holstein. That situation, however, could not stand for long, as Austrian
Holstein was now surrounded by Prussian lands. Bismarck provoked a conflict with Austria
over an unrelated border dispute and in the subsequent Seven Weeks' War--named for its
brevity--Prussia crushed the collapsing Austrian
army. The peace settlement transferred Holstein
to Prussia and forced Austria to officially remove
itself from all German affairs.
With Austria out of Bismarck's way, his next
obstacle was the skepticism of the southern
provinces. Overwhelmingly Catholic and antimilitaristic, the southern provinces doubted
Prussia's commitment to a united Germany of all provinces. Prussia's Protestantism and
historic militarism made the gulf between north and south quite serious. Therefore,
Bismarck turned to ‘realpolitik’ to unite the Germanic provinces by constructing a war
39
against a common enemy. In 1870, Bismarck forged a note from the French ambassador,
implying that the ambassador had insulted the Prussian king (Ems Telegram). After he
leaked this letter to both populations, the people of France and Prussia, roused by
nationalist sentiment, rose up in favour of war. As Bismarck hoped, the southern provinces
rallied to Prussia's side without any hesitation. In July 1870, France declared war on Prussia.
Within a matter of weeks of fighting in Alsace-Lorraine, France lost this Franco-Prussian
War. Alsace-Lorraine was transferred to Germany in the peace settlement, allowing
Prussia to declare the German Empire, or Second Reich, on January 21, 1871.
You have just read the STORY of how Germany was united. However,
when you write an essay, you mustn’t simply describe the story. You
must argue about the importance of factors. Therefore, as you go
through this unit always consider the essay factors. As you learn
about each stage of the unification process, consider which factor
they are relevant to:






Decline of Austria
Prussian economic strength
Bismarck
Prussian military strength
Attitude of foreign states
Actions of Napoleon III
Task
You will be given various tasks to do on this topic, by your classroom teacher. They may
be the questions that appear in this booklet, or they may be something else. However, as
it was said above, you will learn the story of the unification, but you should still ensure that
in your essay you make clear arguments according to the relevant factors. As you read
the information in the textbook and do the various tasks, you are encouraged to fill out
the following sheet as you go along with events/examples that relate to the appropriate
factor. They are a few examples included to help you.
40
As you go through the information about the unification of Germany, it is your task to add notes under the relevant headings. Ensure this sheet is out on your desk at all times during this
topic, and insert any new information that you come across. Write the information in your own words (it should be brief – the main notes should be made in your jotter).
Decline of Austria
Prussian Economic Strength
-Failed to support Russia in the Crimean War and lost a
valuable ally (in case of war) (p108)
-Raw materials were discovered in the Rhine and Saarland
which were exploited by Prussia (p109)
Actions of Napoleon III
KU: Factors that led to the
unification of Germany in 1871
Attitude of Foreign States
-Italy allied with Bismarck under strict conditions meaning
Bismarck had to orchestrate the Austro-Prussian war around
the Italian terms (p120)
41
Bismarck
Prussian Military Strength
Task
Read page 107 & 108 to answer these questions
1. What were the main internal and external factors that could improve the chances of
the German states uniting?
2. Copy down William Carr’s quote on page 107. Explain this quotes key idea on
unification in no more than 15 words. (Remember to include historian's views in your
essays to show awareness of historical debate. This will strengthen your mark for
argument)
42
1. Austria
3. (a) What serious foreign policy mistake did Austria make in the 1850s?
(b) Why was this a significant mistake?
4. Copy and complete the table on Austria’s decline using the information on page 10710. (This will be peer assessed and reviewed as a class)
Political reasons
Economic reasons
Alexander II of Russia
Franz Josef (Emperor of Austria Hungary)
5. What organisation was set up within the Bund and what was its purpose? (last
paragraph page 108)
6. What political party was set up as result of the creation of the Nationalverein ?
43
2. Prussian Economics
7. (Page 109) What were the main economic and social changes taking place in Prussia
in the 1850s?
8. What were the two factors behind the economic changes?
Whole class task. Use the information on pages 108/109.
You are the head of the Austrian civil service. The Prussian King has mocked your boss,
saying that Austria is a declining power! The Austrian Emperor is confused- he believes
that Austria is the major German power.
It is your task to prepare to explain to the Austrian Emperor (classmates) why Austria is a
declining power and why Prussia is overtaking you. This will be done using the hot seat.
One member of the class will be selected for the hot seat in the role of the head of the
civil service and prepare to answer questions. The rest of the class will play the role of the
Austrian Emperor and ask questions about Austria’s decline.
Use the information on pages 108/109 to help you prepare. If you are selected as the
head of the civil service be ready with some key facts and figures! If you are given the
role of the Austrian Emperor be ready with questions for the civil servant. Be prepared to
play both roles!
44
3. Introduction to Bismarck
9. What were the main lessons Bismarck learned from his time in
a) The Bund b) St Petersburg and c) Paris.
10. What historical debate exists about Bismarck’s intentions regarding German
unification? (Page 112)
11. Write your own definition of Realpolitik (as described by Feuchtwanger) on page 113.
Compare this with your neighbour.
12. What did Bismarck think was likely to happen to the German states in the future and
how did he plan to influence it? (Page 113)
13. What does Bismarck mean when he talks of “iron and blood” (Page 114)
'Iceberg' task. Your teacher will give you out a sheet of A3. Working in groups you should
first of all draw on the top third of the sheet the outline of an iceberg. On this 'iceberg' you
should write down as many factors as you can think of that have lead to the German
states becoming closer by the time Bismarck becomes Chancellor in 1862. Think back to
all of your previous work on the German unit. Below an iceberg is what we cannot see or
do not know. What do you think are the key obstacles that Bismarck will have to
overcome to unite Germany?
Think about the states, religion etc. Each group should then take part in a 'walk and
talk' exercise to peer assess each other's work. (Walk and talk- each group is given
another groups work to peer assess. Each iceberg will be passed round the room
and can be assessed using group specific coloured pens or post it notes)
45
Poland
14. What did Bismarck hope would happen in Prussian domestic politics if he attempted to
unite the German states? (Page 114)
Read the section on the Polish war on page 115, copy and complete the passage using
the words in the word bank below.
Russians
relations
generosity
Progressives
border
freedom
nineteenth
rebellions
Britain
tsar,
In the mid ________________ century the Polish people desperately wanted to gain their
_______________. The Kingdom of Poland was ruled over by the Prussians, the Austrians and
the _______________.
1863 saw the latest in a long line of _________________ take place in the Russian section.
Bismarck decided to involve Prussia because he did not want trouble in their part of
Poland and he wanted to improve _____________ with the eastern neighbour.
Bismarck allowed the Russian army access to the Prussian ____________ to help them put
down the revolt. The Russians were very happy at this display of ____________.
The negative reaction of ____________ and France also helped Bismarck as it made the
_________ even more convinced that Prussia was a loyal friend.
Overall, Bismarck improved the relationship between Prussia and Russia and also made
him popular with the Prussian _____________ .
46
4. The Wars of Unification: The
Danish War
(The Danish War and Austro Prussian War is a PowerPoint note saved under Schleswig in
the shared History folder. Teacher will discuss content and pupils are to copy the note)
The first episode in the saga of German unification under Bismarck came with the
Schleswig-Holstein Question. On 15 November 1863, King Christian IX of Denmark became
king of Denmark and duke of Schleswig and Holstein. On 18 November 1863, he signed
the Danish November Constitution and declared the Duchy of Schleswig a part of
Denmark. The German Confederation saw this act as a violation of the London Protocol
of 1852, which emphasized the status of the kingdom of Denmark as distinct from the
independent duchies of Schleswig and Holstein. The populations of Schleswig and
Holstein, furthermore, greatly valued this separate status. The German Confederation
could use the ethnicities of these duchies as a rallying cry: large portions of both
Schleswig and Holstein were of German origin and spoke German in everyday life
(though Schleswig had a sizable Danish minority).
Diplomatic attempts to have the November Constitution repealed collapsed, and fighting
began when Prussian and Austrian troops crossed the border into Schleswig on 1 February
1864. Initially, the Danes attempted to defend their country using an ancient earthen wall
known as the Danevirke, but this proved futile. The Danes were no match for the
combined Prussian and Austrian forces, and they could not rely on help from their allies in
the other Scandinavian states because Denmark had nullified its alliance rights by
violating the London Protocol.
The Needle Gun, one of the first bolt action rifles to be used in conflict, aided the Prussians
in both this war and the Austro-Prussian War two years later. The rifle enabled a Prussian
soldier to fire five shots while lying prone, while his muzzle-loading counterpart could only
fire one shot and had to be reloaded while standing. The Second Schleswig War resulted
in victory for the combined armies of Prussia and Austria, and the two countries won
control of Schleswig and Holstein in the concluding peace of Vienna, signed on 30
October 1864.
47
5. The Wars of Unification: The
Austro-Prussian War
The second episode in Bismarck's unification efforts occurred in 1866, where Bismarck
created a diplomatic environment in which Austria declared war on Prussia. In April 1866,
the Prussian representative in Florence signed a secret agreement with the Italian
government, committing each state to assist the other in a war against Austria. The next
day, the Prussian delegate to the Frankfurt assembly presented a plan calling for a
national constitution, a directly elected national Diet, and universal suffrage. German
liberals were justifiably skeptical of this, and saw the proposal as a ploy to enhance
Prussian power rather than a progressive agenda of reform.
Although several German states initially sided with Austria, they stayed on the defensive
and failed to take effective initiatives against Prussian troops. The Austrian army therefore
faced the technologically superior Prussian army with support only from Saxony (one of
the individual German states). France promised aid, but it came late and was insufficient.
Complicating the situation for Austria, the Italian mobilization on Austria's southern border
required a diversion of forces away from battle with Prussia, to fight on a second front in
Venetia. The day-long Battle of Königgrätz, near the village of Sadová, gave Prussia an
uncontested and decisive victory.
A quick peace was essential to keep Russia from entering the conflict on Austria's side.
Prussia annexed Hanover, Hesse-Kassel, and Nassau. The states south of the Main River
(Baden, Württemberg, and Bavaria) signed separate treaties requiring them to pay
indemnities and to form alliances bringing them into Prussia's sphere of influence. Austria,
and most of her allies were excluded from the newly established ‘North German
Confederation’ (which replaced the German Confederation.
The Austro-Prussian War also damaged relations with the French government. At a
meeting in Biarritz in September 1865 with Napoleon III, Bismarck had let it be understood
(or Napoleon had thought he understood) that France might annex parts of Belgium and
Luxembourg in exchange for its neutrality in the war. These annexations did not happen,
resulting in animosity from Napoleon towards Bismarck.
The reality of defeat for Austria caused a re-evaluation of internal divisions, local
autonomy, and liberalism. The new North German Confederation had its own constitution,
flag, and governmental and administrative structures. Through military victory, Prussia
(under Bismarck's influence) had overcome Austria's active resistance to the idea of a
unified Germany.
15. Create a storyboard to show the key events of the Danish and Austro-Prussian wars
using pictures and text. This should be no more than 9 sections.
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6. The Wars of Unification: The
Franco-Prussian War
In 1866, most mid-sized German states had opposed Prussia, but by 1870 these states had
been coerced and coaxed into mutually protective alliances with Prussia. In the event
that a European state declared war on one of their members, they all would come to the
defense of the attacked state. With skillful manipulation of European politics, Bismarck
created a situation in which France would play the role of aggressor in German affairs,
while Prussia would play that of the protector of German rights and liberties.
16. Sum up the last paragraph on page 123 in 3 bullet points.
17. What were the main sources of tension between Prussia and France? (page 124
paragraph 1
18. How did Bismarck manipulate the southern German states and Napoleon III? (page
124 paragraphs 1 and 2)
19. Using the information on pages 123 and 124 create a spider diagram to demonstrate
the background/build up to the Franco-Prussian War. (This will be peer assessed and
gone over as a class)
The Spanish Candidature
As always, Bismarck sought an excuse for war. The issue he decided upon was the
succession to the Spanish throne. This served to both antagonise France and, make it feel
threatened. Ultimately, Bismarck wanted to provoke a war with France- but on his terms
and at a time of his choosing.
In 1868 a revolution in Spain overthrew Queen Isabella II, and the throne remained empty
while Isabella lived in exile in Paris. The Spanish, looking for a suitable successor, had
offered the post to three European princes, each of whom was rejected by Napoleon III
(leader of France). Finally, in 1870 the crown was offered to Leopold of HohenzollernSigmaringen, a prince of the Prussian Hohenzollern line. The ensuing uproar in Europe, has
been dubbed by historians as the Hohenzollern candidature, and sometimes the Spanish
candidature.
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Bismarck encouraged Leopold to accept the offer. A
successful installment of a Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen king in
Spain would mean that two countries on either side of France
both had German kings of Hohenzollern descent. This may
have been a pleasing prospect for Bismarck, but it was
unacceptable to Napoleon III. France wrote a sharply
formulated ultimatum to Wilhelm (the Prussian King), as head of
the Hohenzollern family, stating that if any Hohenzollern prince
should accept the crown of Spain, the French government
would respond (although he left ambiguous the nature of such
response).
The prince withdrew as a candidate, thus defusing the crisis, but the French ambassador
to Berlin would not let the issue lie. He approached Wilhelm directly, whilst he was
vacationing in Ems Spa, demanding that the King release a statement saying he would
never again put forward a Hohenzollern candidate for the Spanish throne. Wilhelm
refused, and he sent Bismarck a dispatch by telegram describing the French demands.
Bismarck used the king's telegram, called the Ems Dispatch (or Ems Telegram), as a
template for a short statement to the press. With its wording edited by Bismarck, the Ems
Telegram raised an angry furor in France. The French public demanded war.
20. Explain the Thomson quote on page 124 in your own words- you can use this in a
potential essay.
21. Why was Bismarck so keen to put forward a German prince to become the new king
of Spain?
22. What does the nomination of Prince Leopold demonstrate about Bismarck's
power/authority in Prussia?
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War
Napoleon III had tried to secure territorial compensations from both sides before and after
the Austro-Prussian War, but had ended up with nothing. He then hoped that Austria
would join in a war of revenge and that her former allies — particularly the southern
German states of Baden, Württemberg, and Bavaria — would join in the cause. This hope
would prove futile since the 1866 treaty came into effect and united all German states
militarily to fight against France. Instead of a war of revenge against Prussia, supported by
various German allies, France engaged in a war against all of the German states without
any allies of her own.
The reorganization of the military by von Roon and the operational strategy of Moltke
combined against France to great effect. The speed of Prussian mobilisation astonished
the French; and the Prussian ability to concentrate power at specific points overwhelmed
French mobilization. Utilising their efficiently laid rail grid, Prussian troops were delivered to
battle areas rested and prepared to fight, whereas French troops had to march for
considerable distances to reach combat zones. After a number of battles, notably
Spicheren, Wörth, Mars la Tour, and Gravelotte, the Prussians defeated the main French
armies and advanced on the French capital of Paris. They captured Napoleon III and
took an entire army as prisoners at Sedan on 1 September 1870.
Victory in the Franco-Prussian War proved the capstone of the nationalist issue. In the first
half of the 1860s, Austria and Prussia both contended to speak for the German states;
both maintained they could support German interests abroad and protect German
interests at home. In responding to the Schleswig-Holstein Question, they both proved
equally diligent in doing so. After the victory over Austria in 1866, Prussia began internally
asserting her authority to speak for the German states and defend German interests, while
Austria began directing more and more of her attention to possessions in the Balkans.
The victory over France in 1871 greatly expanded Prussian hegemony in the German
states. With the proclamation of Wilhelm as Kaiser, Prussia assumed the leadership of the
new empire. The war ended and the southern states became officially incorporated into
a unified Germany at the Treaty of Frankfurt of 10 May 1871.
23. Create a timeline from the French discovery of Bismarck's scheme to put Leopold on
the throne of Spain to the decision of the Southern German states to side with Prussia
against France.
24. Look at the two historian's quotes on page 126.
(i) What is Seaman saying about Bismarck's actions?
(ii) Does Feuchtwanger consider war between Prussia and France to be important to
the process of German unification? Why?
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Class debate: Bismarck was lucky in the way that events turned out in the Spanish
Candidature. Discuss.
Bismarck enjoying his victory
Birth of the German Empire
25. What were the main reasons for the Prussian victory? (Page 126)
26. When did the German Empire come into existence?
27. Why are Cameron, Henderson and Robertson of the opinion that the Treaty of
Frankfurt was a 'cruel, victors peace'?
Task
PowerPoint presentation - the importance of Bismarck to German unification
Your teacher will discuss how historians view Bismarck's role in German unification and you
will be required to explain why they think the way they do. (Write a note on this in your
jotter)
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Consider: The importance of Bismarck to German unification
Refer back to your sheet that you have been adding events to under the headings:






Decline of Austria
Prussian economic strength
Bismarck
Prussian military strength
Attitude of foreign states
Actions of Napoleon III
If you haven’t already done so, finish filling in your sheet. Consider each of the factors.
Which factor do you think is the most important and why?
In your groups use the knowledge you now have of German unification to complete this
table. Does the evidence point towards Bismarck being a clever opportunist (following a
day to day policy and taking the course most likely to achieve his aims) or someone with
a long term plan?
Look at the key events where Bismarck was in charge of Prussian policy:
-
Poland
-
The Danish War
-
The Austro-Prussian War
-
The Franco-Prussian War.
Also consider anything Bismarck may himself have said about German unification,
anything his contemporaries said and what historians have said.
Some of the evidence has been laid out below. There is a lot more than this though!
Events out with Bismarck’s control
Actions Bismarck took
>Schleswig Holstein. Seized on the >Bismarck's long term aim was to unite
opportunity created by this crisis to Germany under Prussian leadership.
strengthen Prussia's position as the
defender of German nationalism.
> Bismarck always made sure his enemies
were isolated and that Prussia had allies.
> A. J. P. Taylor argues that Bismarck
followed a day to day policy.
> Bismarck practiced Realpolitik.
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Revision activities: quiz-quiz-trade cards (saved in folder marked New Germany unit in
History shared area)
Historians
Williamson – Bismarck did not fashion German unity alone. He exploited powerful forces
that already existed- economics, liberalism and nationalism
Mosse – unification was made easier by circumstance e.g. he exploited Schleswig
Holstein situation and had advantages as the chancellor of a powerful state (economic
influence, powerful army etc)
Aronson – Bismarck was an opportunist.
Stiles – Bismarck had a flexible approach to his goal of unification
Eyck – German unification in the third quarter of the nineteenth century was a natural
development
Pflanze – Only under the stimulation provided by Bismarck for his own political ends did
German nationalism begin to move the masses
Sample essay questions:
[Bold/underlined = isolated factor]
How important was Bismarck’s leadership to German unification?
“Bismarck’s task of unifying Germany was made easier by circumstance. If he played his
hand with great skill, it was a good one in the first place.” How valid is this view of German
unification?
To what extent was Prussia's economic power, the key factor in achieving German
unification?
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