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NINE
ABDOMINOPELVIC
REGIONS
Maintaining Homeostasis
• The body communicates through nervous
and endocrine systems consisting of 3 basic
components
1) Receptor
• Detects a stimulus
2) Control center
• Analyzes information
• Determines appropriate response
3) Effector (Muscles or glands)
• Responds to the stimulus
Simple columnar
Stratified Squamous
Bone
Simple squamous
Simple Squamous
Simple Squamous
Nervous
Stratified Cuboidal
Stratified columnar
Stratified columnar
Stratified columnar
Nerve
Simple cuboidal
Smooth muscle
Skeletal Muscle
Cardiac muscle
Skeletal muscle
Stratified Squamous
Skull
Thoracic cage
(ribs and
sternum)
Vertebral
column
Sacrum
Cranium
Facial bones
Clavicle
Scapula
Sternum
Rib
Humerus
Vertebra
Radius
Ulna
Carpals
Phalanges
Metacarpals
Femur
Patella
Tibia
Fibula
(a) Anterior view
Tarsals
Metatarsals
Phalanges
Figure 7.1a
C1
Cervical curvature
(concave)
7 vertebrae, C1–C7
Spinous
process
Transverse
processes
Thoracic
curvature
(convex)
12 vertebrae,
T1–T12
Intervertebral
discs
Intervertebral
foramen
Lumbar curvature
(concave)
5 vertebrae, L1–L5
Sacral curvature
(convex)
5 fused vertebrae
sacrum
Anterior view
Coccyx
4 fused vertebrae
Right lateral view
Figure 7.16
Distal
Middle
Proximal
1
Medial
cuneiform
Intermediate
cuneiform
Navicular
Talus
Trochlea
of talus
(a) Superior view
2
3
4
5
Phalanges
Metatarsals
Lateral
cuneiform
Cuboid
Tarsals
Calcaneus
Figure 7.33a
Phalanges
• Distal
• Middle
• Proximal
Sesamoid
bones
Carpals
• Trapezium
• Trapezoid
• Scaphoid
Radius
(a) Anterior view of left hand
Metacarpals
• Head
• Shaft
• Base
Carpals
• Hamate
• Capitate
• Pisiform
• Triquetrum
• Lunate
Ulna
Carpals
• Trapezium
• Trapezoid
• Scaphoid
Radius
(b) Posterior view of left hand
Figure 7.28a-b
• Gouty Arthritis
• Deposition of uric acid crystals in joints and
soft tissues, followed by inflammation
• More common in men; Typically affects the
joint at the base of the great toe
• In untreated gouty arthritis, the bone ends
fuse and immobilize the joint
• Treatment: drugs, plenty of water,
avoidance of alcohol
• Rheumatoid Arthritis (RA) Chronic, inflammatory,
autoimmune disease of unknown cause
• Usually arises between age 40 and 50, but may occur at
any age; affects 3 times as many women as men
• Signs and symptoms include joint pain and swelling
(usually bilateral), anemia, osteoporosis, muscle weakness,
and cardiovascular problems; RA begins with synovitis of
the affected joint
• Inflammatory blood cells migrate to the joint, release
inflammatory chemicals
• Inflamed synovial membrane thickens into a pannus
• Pannus erodes cartilage, scar tissue forms, articulating
bone ends connect (ankylosis)
• Conservative therapy: aspirin, long-term use of antibiotics,
and physical therapy
• Progressive treatment: anti-inflammatory drugs or
immunosuppressants
Movements
at
Synovial
Joints
1. Gliding
2. Angular movements:
– Flexion, extension, hyperextension
– Abduction, adduction
– Circumduction
3. Rotation
– Medial and lateral rotation
Movements
at
Synovial
Joints
4. Special movements
–
–
–
–
–
–
Supination, pronation
Dorsiflexion, plantar flexion of the foot
Inversion, eversion
Protraction, retraction
Elevation, depression
Opposition
Gliding Movements
• One flat bone surface glides or slips over
another similar surface
• Examples:
– Intercarpal joints
– Intertarsal joints
– Between articular processes of vertebrae
Gliding
(a) Gliding movements at the wrist
Figure 8.5a
Angular Movements
Movements that occur along the sagittal
plane:
• Flexion—decreases the angle of the joint
• Extension— increases the angle of the joint
• Hyperextension—excessive extension
beyond normal range of motion
Hyperextension
Extension
Flexion
(b) Angular movements: flexion, extension, and
hyperextension of the neck
Figure 8.5b
Extension
Hyperextension
Flexion
(c) Angular movements: flexion, extension, and
hyperextension of the vertebral column
Figure 8.5c
Flexion
Extension
Flexion
Extension
(d) Angular movements: flexion and extension at the
shoulder and knee
Figure 8.5d
Angular Movements
Movements that occur along the frontal plane:
• Abduction—movement away from the
midline
• Adduction—movement toward the midline
• Circumduction—flexion + abduction +
extension + adduction of a limb so as to
describe a cone in space
Abduction
Adduction
Circumduction
(e) Angular movements: abduction, adduction, and
circumduction of the upper limb at the shoulder
Figure 8.5e
Rotation
• The turning of a bone around its own long
axis
• Examples:
– Between C1 and C2 vertebrae
– Rotation of humerus and femur
Rotation
Lateral
rotation
Medial
rotation
(f) Rotation of the head, neck, and lower limb
Figure 8.5f
Special Movements
• Movements of radius around ulna:
– Supination (turning hand backward)
– Pronation (turning hand forward)
Pronation
(radius
rotates
over ulna)
Supination
(radius and
ulna are
parallel)
(a) Pronation (P) and supination (S)
Figure 8.6a
Special Movements
• Movements of the foot:
– Dorsiflexion (upward movement)
– Plantar flexion (downward movement)
Dorsiflexion
Dorsiflexion
Plantar
flexion
Plantar
flexion
(b) Dorsiflexion and plantar flexion
Figure 8.6b
Special Movements
• Movements of the foot:
– Inversion (turn sole medially)
– Eversion (turn sole laterally)
Inversion
Eversion
(c) Inversion and eversion
Figure 8.6c
Special Movements
• Movements in a transverse plane:
– Protraction (anterior movement)
– Retraction (posterior movement)
Protraction
of mandible
Retraction
of mandible
(d) Protraction and retraction
Figure 8.6d
Special Movements
• Elevation (lifting a body part superiorly)
• Depression (moving a body part inferiorly)
Elevation
of mandible
Depression
of mandible
(e) Elevation and depression
Figure 8.6e
Special Movements
• Opposition of the thumb
– Movement in the saddle joint so that the thumb
touches the tips of the other fingers
Opposition
(f) Opposition
Figure 8.6f
• Odor Of Orangutan Terrified Tarzan After
Forty Voracious Gorillas Viciously
Attacked Him
• Old Opie Occasionally Tries
Trigonometry And Feels Very Gloomy,
Vague And Hypoactive
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The cranial nerves are:
I - Olfactory nerve
II - Optic nerve
III - Oculomotor nerve
IV - Trochlear nerve
V - Trigeminal nerve/dentist nerve
VI - Abducens nerve
VII - Facial nerve
VIII - Vestibulocochlear nerve/Auditory nerve
IX - Glossopharyngeal nerve
X - Vagus nerve
XI - Accessory nerve/Spinal accessory nerve
XII - Hypoglossal nerve
Precentral
gyrus
Frontal
lobe
Central
sulcus
Postcentral
gyrus
Parietal lobe
Parieto-occipital sulcus
(on medial surface
of hemisphere)
Lateral sulcus
Occipital lobe
Temporal lobe
Transverse cerebral fissure
Cerebellum
Pons
Medulla oblongata
Spinal cord
Fissure
(a deep
sulcus)
Gyrus
Cortex (gray matter)
Sulcus
White matter
(a)
Figure 12.6a
Frontal lobe
Central
sulcus
Gyri of insula
Temporal lobe
(pulled down)
(b)
Figure 12.6b
Pineal gland
Hypothalamus
Pituitary gland
Thyroid gland
Parathyroid glands
(on dorsal aspect
of thyroid gland)
Thymus
Adrenal glands
Pancreas
Ovary (female)
Testis (male)
Figure 16.1
Mechanisms of Hormone Action
•
Two mechanisms, depending on their chemical
nature
1. Water-soluble hormones (all amino acid–based
hormones except thyroid hormone)
• Cannot enter the target cells
• Act on plasma membrane receptors
• Coupled by G proteins to intracellular second
messengers that mediate the target cell’s response
Mechanisms of Hormone Action
2. Lipid-soluble hormones (steroid and thyroid
hormones)
•
Act on intracellular receptors that directly activate
genes
Homeostatic Imbalances of the
Brain
• Traumatic brain injuries
– Concussion—temporary alteration in function
– Contusion—permanent damage
– Subdural or subarachnoid hemorrhage—may
force brain stem through the foramen magnum,
resulting in death
– Cerebral edema—swelling of the brain
associated with traumatic head injury
• Alzheimer’s disease (AD): a progressive
degenerative disease of the brain that results in
dementia; accounts for 50 to 80 percent of
dementia cases, early onset types can appear as
early as 40 yoa
• Two abnormal structures called plaques and
tangles are prime suspects in damaging and killing
nerve cells.
•
Plaques are deposits of a protein fragment
called beta-amyloid that build up in the spaces
between nerve cells.
• Tangles are twisted fibers of another
protein called tau that build up inside cells.
• Transient ischemic attacks (TIAs)—
temporary episodes of reversible cerebral
ischemia
Aorta
Superior vena cava
Right pulmonary
artery
Pulmonary trunk
Right atrium
Right pulmonary
veins
Fossa ovalis
Pectinate muscles
Tricuspid valve
Right ventricle
Chordae tendineae
Trabeculae carneae
Inferior vena cava
Left pulmonary
artery
Left atrium
Left pulmonary
veins
Mitral (bicuspid)
valve
Aortic valve
Pulmonary valve
Left ventricle
Papillary muscle
Interventricular
septum
Epicardium
Myocardium
Endocardium
(e) Frontal section
Figure 18.4e
Body
Cavities
 The ventral cavity
contains the thoracic &
abdominopelvic
cavities, and are
separated by the
diaphragm.
 Dorsal cavity contains
the cranial and spinal
cavities
Cerebral hemisphere
Septum pellucidum
Interthalamic
adhesion
(intermediate
mass of
thalamus)
Interventricular
foramen
Anterior
commissure
Hypothalamus
Optic chiasma
Pituitary gland
Mammillary body
Pons
Medulla oblongata
Corpus callosum
Fornix
Choroid plexus
Thalamus
(encloses third
ventricle)
Posterior commissure
Pineal gland
(part of epithalamus)
Corpora
quadrigemina MidCerebral
brain
aqueduct
Arbor vitae (of
cerebellum)
Fourth ventricle
Choroid plexus
Cerebellum
Spinal cord
Figure 12.12
· Premature Ventricular
Complexes PVCs
Also you'll see 2 odd waveforms, these are the ventricles
depolarizing prematurely in response to a signal within
the ventricles.(Above - unifocal PVC's as they look alike
if they differed in appearance they would be called
multifocal PVC's, as below)
Multi focal PVCs