Download Lecture 10

Java How to Program,
Late Objects Version, 8/e
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In this chapter, we present a simple framework for
organizing object-oriented applications in Java.
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Simple analogy to help you understand classes and their contents.
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Suppose you want to drive a car and make it go faster by
pressing down on its accelerator pedal.
◦ Before you can drive a car, someone has to design it
◦ A car typically begins as engineering drawings, similar to the blueprints
used to design a house.
◦ These include the design for an accelerator pedal to make the car go
faster.
◦ The pedal “hides” from the driver the complex mechanisms that actually
make the car go faster, just as the brake pedal “hides” the mechanisms
that slow the car and the steering wheel “hides” the mechanisms that
turn the car.
◦ Enables people with little or no knowledge of how engines work to drive
a car easily.
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Cannot drive a car’s engineering drawings
◦ Before you can drive a car, it must be built from the
engineering drawings that describe it
◦ A completed car has an actual accelerator pedal to make the
car go faster, but even that’s not enough—the car won’t
accelerate on its own, so the driver must press the accelerator
pedal
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Performing a task in a program requires a method.
◦ The method declaration describes the mechanisms that actually
perform its tasks.
◦ The method hides from its user the complex tasks that it performs.
◦ In Java, we begin by creating a program unit called a class to house a
method, just as a car’s engineering drawings house the design of an
accelerator pedal.
◦ You provide one or more methods that are designed to perform the
class’s tasks.
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Just as someone has to build a car from its engineering
drawings before you can actually drive a car, you must
build an object of a class before you can get a program
to perform the tasks the class describes how to do
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When you drive a car, pressing its gas pedal sends a
message to the car to perform a task—that is, make the
car go faster.
Similarly, you send messages to an object—each
message is a method call that tells a method of the
object to perform its task.
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A car, in addition to it’s capabilities, also has many
attributes, such as its color, the number of doors, the
amount of gas in its tank, its current speed and its total
miles driven.
◦ These attributes are represented as part of a car’s design in its
engineering diagrams
◦ As you drive a car, these attributes are always associated with
the car
◦ Every car maintains its own attributes
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Similarly, an object has attributes that are carried with
the object as it’s used in a program
◦ These attributes are specified as part of the object’s class
◦ Attributes are specified by the class’s instance variables
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In this section, you create a new class, then use it to create an
object.
We begin with an example that consists of classes GradeBook
(Fig. 7.1) and GradeBookTest (Fig. 7.2).
Class GradeBook (declared in file GradeBook.java) will be
used to display a message on the screen (Fig. 7.2) welcoming
the instructor to the grade book application.
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Class GradeBookTest (declared in file GradeBookTest.java) is
an application class in which the main method will create and
use an object of class GradeBook.
◦ Such an application class is sometimes called a test harness.
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Each class declaration that begins with keyword public must
be stored in a file that has the same name as the class and
ends with the .java file-name extension.
◦ Thus, classes GradeBook and GradeBookTest will be
declared in separate files.
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A class normally consists of one or more methods that
manipulate the attributes that belong to a particular object
of the class.
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Attributes are represented as variables in a class declaration
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Such variables are called fields and are declared inside a
class declaration but outside the bodies of the class’s
method declarations.
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When each object of a class maintains its own copy of an
attribute, the field that represents the attribute is also known
as an instance variable.
◦ Each object (instance) of the class has a separate instance of the
variable in memory
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Class GradeBook (Fig. 7.1) maintains the course
name as an instance variable so that it can be used or
modified at any time during an application’s execution
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The class contains three methods:
1. setCourseName: stores a course name in a GradeBook
2. getCourseName: obtains a GradeBook’s course name
3. displayMessage: displays a welcome message that
includes the course name; as you’ll see, the method obtains
the course name by calling another method in the same
class—getCourseName
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The keyword public is an access modifier.
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Every class declaration contains keyword class followed
immediately by the class’s name.
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Every class’s body is enclosed in a pair of left and right
braces.
◦ For now, we’ll simply declare every class public
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A variable that is declared in the body of the class but
outside the bodies of the class’s methods is an instance
variable.
◦ Every instance of the class contains one copy of each instance
variable.
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All the methods of the class can manipulate any instance
variables that appear in the class.
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Most instance-variable declarations are preceded with
the keyword private.
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Like public, keyword private is an access
modifier.
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Variables or methods declared with access modifier
private are accessible only to methods of the class
in which they’re declared.
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Declaring instance variables with access modifier
private is known as data hiding or information
hiding
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The methods you declared in earlier chapters were all static
methods.
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In this class, the methods are not declared with keyword static.
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A non-static method can call any method of the same class directly
and can manipulate any of the class’s fields directly.
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A static method can call only other static methods of the same
class directly and can manipulate only static fields in the same class
directly.
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Class GradeBook cannot execute the application
because it does not contain main.
To fix this problem, we must either declare a separate
class that contains a main method or place a main
method in class GradeBook.
To help you prepare for the larger programs you’ll
encounter later in this book and in industry, we use a
separate class containing method main to test each
new class we create in this chapter.
◦ Some programmers refer to such a class as a driver class
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Class GradeBookTest (Fig. 7.2) creates one object of class
GradeBook and demonstrates its methods.
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Typically, you cannot call a method that belongs to
another class until you create an object of that class.
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Each new class you create becomes a new type that can
be used to declare variables and create objects.
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You can declare new class types as needed; this is one
reason why Java is known as an extensible language.
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A class instance creation expression uses keyword
new to create a new object of the class specified to
the right of the keyword.
◦ The parentheses to the right of the class name are required.
◦ The parentheses in combination with a class name represent a
call to a constructor, which is similar to a method but is used
only at the time an object is created to initialize the object’s
data.
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Unlike local variables, which are not automatically
initialized, every field has a default initial value.
◦ Provided by Java when you do not specify the field’s initial value.
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Reference-type instance variables are initialized by default
to the value null—a reserved word that represents a
“reference to nothing.”
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Primitive-type instance variables of types byte, char,
short, int, long, float and double are initialized to
0, and variables of type boolean are initialized to false
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You can specify your own initial value for a variable by
assigning the variable a value in its declaration
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Scanner method nextLine reads characters typed
by the user until the newline character is encountered,
then returns a String containing the characters up to,
but not including, the newline.
◦ The newline character is discarded
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Class Scanner also provides a similar method—
next—that reads individual words.
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A class’s private fields can be manipulated
only by the class’s methods.
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Classes often provide public methods to allow
clients to set (i.e., assign values to) or get (i.e., obtain
the values of) private instance variables.
◦ The names of these methods need not begin with set or get, but
this naming convention is recommended.
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You must compile the classes in Fig. 7.1 and Fig. 7.2
before you can execute the application.
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The following command compiles both classes:
 javac GradeBook.java GradeBookTest.java
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If the directory containing the application includes only
this application’s files, you can compile all the classes
in the directory with the command
 javac *.java
◦ The asterisk (*) in *.java indicates that all files in the
current directory that end with the file-name extension
“.java” should be compiled.
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Figure 7.3 presents a UML class diagram for class
GradeBook in Fig. 7.1
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In the UML, each class is modeled in a class diagram
as a rectangle with three compartments.
◦ The top one contains the name of the class centered
horizontally in boldface type
◦ The middle compartment contains the class’s attributes,
which correspond to instance variables in Java
◦ The bottom compartment contains the class’s operations,
which correspond to methods in Java
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The UML represents instance variables as attributes by
listing the attribute name, followed by a colon and the
attribute type.
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Instance variable courseName is private in Java, so
the class diagram lists a minus sign (–) access modifier in
front of the corresponding attribute’s name.
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The UML models operations by listing the operation name
preceded by an access modifier (in this case + to represent
public) and followed by a set of parentheses.
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The UML indicates the return type of an operation by
placing a colon and the return type after the parentheses
following the operation name.
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The import declaration in Fig. 7.2 indicates to the
compiler that the program uses class Scanner.
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Why do we need to import class Scanner, but not
classes System, String or GradeBook?
◦ Classes System and String are in package java.lang,
which is implicitly imported into every Java program, so all
programs can use that package’s classes without explicitly
importing them
◦ Most other classes you’ll use in Java programs must be
imported explicitly
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There is a special relationship between classes that are
compiled in the same directory on disk.
◦ Such classes are considered to be in the same package—known
as the default package.
◦ Classes in the same package are implicitly imported into the
source-code files of other classes in the same package.
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The import declaration in line 3 is not required if we
always refer to class Scanner as java.util.Scanner,
which includes the full package name and class name.
◦ This is known as the class’s fully qualified class name.
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Each class you declare can provide a special method
called a constructor that can be used to initialize an
object of a class when the object is created.
Java requires a constructor call for every object that is
created.
Keyword new requests memory from the system to
store an object, then calls the corresponding class’s
constructor to initialize the object.
◦ The call is indicated by the parentheses after the class name.
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A constructor must have the same name as the class.
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For example, line 14 of Fig. 7.2 first uses new to create a
GradeBook object.
The empty parentheses after “new GradeBook” indicate
a call to the class’s constructor without arguments.
The compiler provides a default constructor with no
parameters in any class that does not explicitly include a
constructor.
◦ When a class has only the default constructor, its instance variables
are initialized to their default values.
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When you declare a class, you can provide your own
constructor to specify custom initialization for objects of
your class
Figure 7.4 contains a modified GradeBook class with a
constructor that receives an argument.
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Like a method, a constructor’s parameter list specifies
the data it requires to perform its task.
◦ When you create a new object, this data is placed in the
parentheses that follow the class name.
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A class instance creation expression returns a reference
to the new object.
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An important difference between constructors and
methods is that constructors cannot return
values, so they cannot specify a return type (not even
void).
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Normally, constructors are declared public.
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If you declare any constructors for a class, the Java
compiler will not create a default constructor for that
class.
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The UML class diagram of Fig. 7.6 models class GradeBook of
Fig. 7.4, which has a constructor that has a name parameter
of type String.
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Like operations, the UML models constructors in the third
compartment of a class in a class diagram.
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To distinguish a constructor from a class’s operations, the
UML requires that the word “constructor” be placed between
guillemets (« and ») before the constructor’s name.
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It’s customary to list constructors before other operations in
the third compartment.
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Sometimes you’ll want to initialize objects with
multiple pieces of data.
Like methods, constructors can specify any number of
parameters.
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Our next application (Figs. 7.7–7.8) contains a class
named Account (Fig. 7.7) that maintains the balance
of a bank account.
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The class has a constructor and two methods.
It’s common for someone opening an account to
deposit money immediately, so the constructor receives
a parameter initialBalance of type double that
represents the starting balance.
◦ Lines 14–15 validate the constructor argument to ensure that
initialBalance is greater than 0.0.
◦ If so, initialBalance’s value is assigned to instance
variable balance.
◦ Otherwise, balance remains at 0.0—its default initial
value.
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Class AccountTest (Fig. 7.8) creates and
manipulates two Account objects.
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The UML class diagram in Fig. 7.9 models class
Account of Fig. 7.7.
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In our next example, we manipulate an array of objects.
Elements of an array can be either primitive types or reference
types.
This section uses random-number generation and an array of
Card objects, to develop a class that simulates card shuffling
and dealing.
We first develop class Card (Fig. 7.10), which represents a
playing card that has a face and a suit.
Next, we develop the DeckOfCards class (Fig. 7.11), which
creates a deck of 52 playing cards in which each element is a
Card object.
We then build a test application (Fig. 7.12) that demonstrates
class DeckOfCards’s card shuffling and dealing capabilities.
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Class Card (Fig. 7.10) contains two String instance variables—
face and suit—that are used to store references to the face
name and suit name for a specific Card.
Method toString creates a String consisting of the face of the
card, the String " of " and the suit of the card
All objects have a toString method that returns a String
representation of the object
When an object is concatenated with a String or used where a
String is expected (e.g., when printf outputs the object as a
String using the %s format specifier), the object’s toString
method is implicitly called to obtain the String representation of
the object.
◦ For this behavior to occur, toString must be declared with the header
shown in Fig. 7.10.
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Class DeckOfCards (Fig. 7.11) declares as an instance variable a Card
array named deck (line 7).
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Class DeckOfCards also declares an integer instance variable
currentCard representing the next Card to be dealt from the deck
array and a named constant NUMBER_OF_CARDS indicating the
number of Cards in the deck (52).
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The class’s constructor instantiates the deck array.
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When first created, the elements of the deck array are null by
default, so the constructor uses a for statement to fill the deck
array with Cards
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When the deck array is initialized, it contains the Cards with faces
"Ace" through "King" in order for each suit ("Hearts" then
"Diamonds" then "Clubs" then
"Spades")
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Method shuffle shuffles the Cards in the deck.
For each Card, a number between 0 and 51 is picked
randomly to select another Card.
Next, the current Card object and the randomly selected
Card object are swapped in the array.
After the for loop terminates, the Card objects are
randomly ordered
Method dealCard deals one Card in the array.
If the deck is not empty, line 53 returns the “top” Card and
postincrements currentCard to prepare for the next call to
dealCard—otherwise, null is returned.
◦ Recall that null represents a “reference to nothing.”
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Figure 7.12 demonstrates class DeckOfCards
(Fig. 7.11)
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